• 09Aug

    THE APOSTLE PAUL AND DR. LUKE ON THE ISLAND OF COS: Sin, Sickness, and Death

    Paul and Places Comments Off on THE APOSTLE PAUL AND DR. LUKE ON THE ISLAND OF COS: Sin, Sickness, and Death

    Introduction

    The island of Cos played an important role in the history of medicine. In fact, one of the ancient medical discoveries made on this island is used on a regular basis today. Apart from the Band-aid, I’ll bet this “miracle drug” is in most, if not all, of our medicine cabinets at home. Some may carry a bottle of it in their purse, or have it in their cars’ glove compartment. This item is used for a host of things that ails us; including headaches, back pain, fevers, and to reduce the risk of heart attacks or strokes.

    A physician on the island of Cos noticed that the bark from the white willow tree relieved the aches, pain, and fever of his patients. It wasn’t until the 1820’s that the substance that relieved the pain was identified as salicin and was used to create salicylic acid. In 1897, Felix Hoffman, a chemist for the Bayer Pharmaceutical company in Germany developed acetylsalicyhe acid to help relieve the pain of his father’s arthritis. Today, that discovery is known as aspirin! It is only within the last 200 years or so that we have rediscovered what Hippocrates, the father of modern medicine (460-375 BC), discovered on this island – an ancient form of aspirin. 

    We will come back to Hippocrates later, but first, let’s introduce the island.

    Description of the Island

    The island of Cos, approximately 290 square kilometers (180 square miles), lies in the center of the Dodecanese, a chain of islands along the southwest coast of modern-day Turkey. On a map, the shape of the island looks like a dolphin or a whale swimming. It is the third largest island in this chain and is approximately 100 kilometers northwest of Rhodes and 250 kilometers east-southeast of Athens, or 192 nautical miles from Piraeus, the seaport of Athens.

    Pliny reports that the island is 100 Roman miles in circumference (Natural History 5.134; LCL 2:321). Strabo says the circumference was 550 stadia (Geography 14.2.19; LCL 6:287), which is about 90 miles and fairly close to reality.

    A mountainous region begins south of the city of Cos and runs along the southern coast of the island. This region includes Dikaio Christo, the highest peak at 846 meters above sea level.

    Today, the islanders make their living from agriculture, fishing, and tourism. The farmers raise vegetables, grapes, grain, olives, and citrus fruit. Beekeeping is a by-product of their agricultural work. They also raise livestock. In antiquity, the island of Cos was noted for its fruits and especially for its grapes (Pliny, Natural History 15:18; LCL 4:335; 17:30; LCL 5:93).

    The Greek historian and geographer, Strabo (64/63 BC to AD 21), gave a brief description of the island of Cos in Geography (14:2:19; LCL 6:287-289). Of the city of Cos he says, “… the city is not large, but it is the most beautifully settled of all, and is most pleasing to behold as one sails from the high seas to the shore.”

    For a brief overview of the history of the island of Cos, see Picozzi 1976: 465-467. For an in-dept analysis, see Sherwin-White 1978.

    Was there a Jewish Presence on the Island of Cos?

    The ancient sources state that there were Jewish connections with the island, but there are no sources that indicate there was a thriving Jewish community living on the island in antiquity.

    During the rule of Judah the Maccabee, some Jewish envoys received a safe-conduct letter from the consul C. Fannius Strabo to the magistrates of Cos for their trip from Rome to Jerusalem in 161 BC (Jewish Antiquities 14: 233; LCL 7: 573).

    A letter on behalf of the high priest, Simon (ruled 140-134 BC) was written by the consul in Rome, L. Caecilius Metellus (1 Macc. 15:23), and sent to a number of cities, including Cos.

    Josephus, the First Century AD Jewish historian, recounts an event that took place in 102 BC. In that year, Cleopatra III of Egypt “sent the greater part of her wealth and her grandsons and her testament to Cos for safe keeping [in the sanctuary of Asclepius]” (Jewish Antiquities 13: 349; LCL 7: 401). He goes on to quote Strabo of Cappadocia who relates what happened next. “’Mithridates sent to Cos and took the money which Queen Cleopatra had deposited there, and eight hundred talents of the Jews.’ Now there is no public money among us except that which is God’s and it is evident that this money was transferred to Cos by the Jews of Asia because of their fear of Mithridates” (Jewish Antiquities 14: 112-113; LCL 7: 505-507). The transfer of the “talents of the Jews” occurred in 88 BC. This money probably refers to gifts given to the Temple in Jerusalem or the yearly half-shekel Temple tax. Some have concluded that this number was too high for the annual Temple tax so suggested that this might be the private fortunes of the Jewish people living in Asia Minor.

    A Greek inscription found in the excavations of Cos refers to a Jewess or a “God-fearer” (Safrai and Stern 1974: 154). Whether she was part of a Jewish community on Cos is a matter of speculation. We have no absolute information in this regard.

    Josephus also tells us that Herod the Great (73-4 BC), the “king of the Jews,” “endowed (Cos) with revenues to maintain the annual office of gymnasiarch [the keeper of the gymnasium who was responsible for the conduct of the festal games and for the maintenance and payment of trainers and training-masters] to perpetuity, to ensure that this honourable post should never lapse” (Jewish Wars 1:423; LCL 2: 201). Herod the Great had sailed past Cos in the spring of 14 BC on his way to join Marcus Agrippa, Augustus’ chief lieutenant in the Black Sea region, on his expedition to Bosporus (Jewish Antiquities 16:17; LCL 8: 215).

    Another Greek inscription discovered on Cos mentioned Herod Antipas, the ruler of Galilee and Perea during the time of the Lord Jesus. He apparently followed in his father’s footsteps concerning diplomacy with the Greek world (Safrai and Stern 1974: 285).

    Artists from the Island of Cos

    One of the famous artists from Cos was Praxiteles whose workshop flourished between 364-361 BC. He worked in bronze, but his most famous works were in marble. On one occasion, he made two statues of Venus (Aphrodite, the goddess of love and beauty), one was draped with cloth and the other was not. The cultured and refined people of Cos were offended by the non-draped one, so they purchased the statue of her draped. The perverts from Cnidus loved the other statue of Venus so they purchased it and built a temple for her in their city. It became a major tourist attraction with people from all over the Aegean Sea sailing to see her in her birthday suit and all her naked glory! (Pliny, Natural History 36: 20-21; LCL 10: 15-17). The Apostle Paul sails by this city on at least three occasions, but there is no record of him, or the ship he was on, stopping there (cf. Acts 27:7).

    The Silk Trade on Cos

    The Greek philosopher Aristotle (384-322 BC), writing in his History of Animals, describes a caterpillar that goes through each stage of its metamorphoses in six months and leaves behind a cocoon. He records: “Some of the women actually unwind the cocoons from these creatures, by reeling the thread off, and then weave a fabric from it; the first to do this weaving is said to have been a woman of Cos named of Pamphila, daughter of Plateus” (5:19; LCL 10: 177). Silk was introduced to the Greek world by the Coans sometime before Aristotle. In the 1st century AD, a purple silk was produced that was highly prized and in demand in Rome (Juvenal, Satire 8.101; LCL 167). For a discussion of the silk trade, see Richter 1929:27-33; Forbes 1930:22-26; Sherwin-White 1978:242, 378-383.

    Some Coins from the Island of Cos

    In 1979 a coin was discovered in a burial cave in Jerusalem. This coin was struck with a crab on it that is typical of the coins from the island of Cos that were minted down to the second century BC. Dr. Rachel Barkay, the former curator of the numismatic collection at the Bank of Israel, explained the importance of this coin: “The coin of Cos, found in the excavations of the ‘Shoulder of Hinnom’ in Jerusalem, is thus one of the earliest coins found in Israel and among the earliest coins minted. Judging by its context, we would safely date it somewhere between 550-500 BC” (1984-1985: 5).

    The island of Cos minted coins in the first century AD. Most of the coins circulating on Cos when Dr. Luke and the Apostle Paul visited had the image of the bearded god Asclepius or a coiled snake, a symbol of the healing god, on the reverse side of the coin (Burnett, Amandry, and Ripolles 1992: 452-453; Plate 118; Kromann 1988). Incidentally, the medical symbol, the cross with a serpent around it, comes from the Asclepius cult, not Moses’ lifting up the serpent in the wilderness! (cf. John 3:14; Num. 21:7-9).

    Hippocrates and the Asklepieion on Cos

    The Asklepieion was the famous healing complex with its temples dedicated to Asclepius, the Greek god of healing. It was located in the suburb of the city of Cos. This center of healing was made famous by Hippocrates (460-377 BC), the father of medicine, who was born on the island (Pliny, Natural History 29.2; LCL 8:185).

    When Hippocrates lived on the island there was only an altar dedicated to the healing god Asclepius. The construction of the Asklepieion began after the death of Hippocrates in the mid-4th century BC and was built in his honor.

    Strabo describes this shrine: “In the suburbs [of the city of Cos] is the Asclepieium, a temple exceedingly famous and full of numerous votive offerings, among which is the Antigonus of Apelles. And Aphrodite Anadyomene [emerging from the sea] used to be there [this, too, was a painting by Apelles], but it is now dedicated to the deified Caesar in Rome, Augustus thus having dedicated to his father the female founder of the family. It is said that the Coans got a remission of one hundred talents of the appointed tribute in return for the painting. And it is said that the dietetics practiced by Hippocrates were derived mostly from the cures recorded on the votive tablets there. He, then, is one of the famous men from Cos; and so is Simus the physician” (Geography 14.2.19; LCL 6: 287-289, brackets are footnotes in the Loeb edition).

    Pliny the Elder mentions an inscription that was recorded on the temple to Asclepius on Cos. It gave the preparation for making a remedy for counteracting the poison of venomous animals. He adds a footnote, that “King Antiochus the Great is said to have used this preparation as an antidote for the poison of all venomous creatures except the asp” (Natural History 20. 264; LCL 6: 157).

    There are some notable physicians that came out of the Hippocratic Medical School on the island of Cos. For example, the Greek historian Arrian (AD 95-175) reports that after Alexander the Great was severely wounded in a battle with Indians and he tittered on the brink of death, Critodemus, a physician from Cos, successfully removed the arrow and saved his life (Anabasis of Alexander 4. 11. 1; LCL 2:131).

    Another physician, Gaius Stertinius Xenophon (ca. 10 BC-AD 54), was the personal physician to Emperor Claudius who reigned AD 41-54. Tacitus reports that Dr. Xenophon was one of the suspected culprits in the poisoning of Claudius when he ate mushrooms, the “food of the gods.” When the poison did not take effect right away; Agrippina, the wife of Claudius and mother of Nero, got Dr. Xenophon to intervene. According to Tacitus, “He, it is believed, under cover of assisting the emperor’s struggles to vomit, plunged a feather, dipped in a quick poison, down his throat: for he was well aware that crimes of the first magnitude are begun with peril and consummated with profit” (Annals 12.67; LCL 4:415). Indeed, it was a profitable act. According to Pliny the Elder, Dr. Xenophon and his brother, also a physician, left 30 million sesterces to their heirs (Natural History 29.7-8; LCL 8:187).

    There is a bit of irony in the actions of Dr. Xenophon because the Hippocratic Oath says: “I will use treatment to help the sick according to my ability and judgment, but never with a view to injury and wrongdoing. Neither will I administer a poison to anybody when asked to do so, nor will I suggest such a course. … Into whatsoever houses I enter, I will enter to help the sick, and I will abstain from all intentional wrong doing and harm, especially from abusing the bodies of man or woman, bond or free” (Hippocrate’s Oath, LCL 1:299-301; Kaipokas 1991: 13)!

    There is even more irony here. Emperor Claudius, in AD 53, exempted the inhabitants of the island of Cos from paying taxes because of their contribution to the medical field and the prayers of Dr. Xenophon (Tacitus, Annals 12.61; LCL 4:405).

    A biography of Hippocrates was written by Soranus, a Greek physician from Ephesus, who was trained in the medical school at Alexandria, but practiced medicine in Rome during the reigns of emperors Trajan and Hadrian (AD 98-138). Unfortunately, there are no known extant copies of this biography today.

    The Visit by the Apostle Paul and His Fellow Travelers

    At the end of his third missionary journey in AD 57, the Apostle Paul and his traveling companions bypassed Ephesus in order to get back to Jerusalem for Shavuot (Pentecost). He stopped in Miletus, most likely for a few days, in order to meet with the Ephesian elders and exhort and encourage them in the work of the Lord, and to warn them of false teachers in the church (Acts 20:19-38).

    After Paul’s tearful farewell to the elders, Dr. Luke picks up the account of their travels saying, “… when we departed from them we set sail, running a straight course we came to Cos, the following day to Rhodes …” (Acts 21:1). With a fair wind, the ship could cover the forty nautical miles due south in about six hours. If they left Miletus in the early morning, the ship would arrive at Cos by early afternoon and the Apostle Paul and his fellow travelers would have the rest of the day to engage in sight-seeing and evangelistic activities. They would have spent the night on Cos while the ship was off loaded and resupplied before continuing on their journey to Rhodes the next morning.

    As they approached the harbor of Cos, the sailors and passengers, would have noticed the famous Asklepieion on the northwest slopes of the island, behind the city. They would have observed three terraces in this complex, each with temples and buildings on them. Perhaps Dr. Luke had an interest in visiting the Asklepieion for a closer view of the buildings, statues, and inscriptions. More than likely, some people on the ship were visiting Cos in hopes of getting healed because of the reputation of this shrine.

    A guide book for Cos informs us that “the apostle Paul visited the island on one of his journeys, sharing and teaching his religion of love under the Hippocrates plane tree.” According to tradition, this plane tree [known to Americans as a sycamore tree, Platanus occidentalis], situated a few minutes walk from the harbor area, was planted by Hippocrates and was the place where he taught his students (Alexandri 1981: 14, 58-59). Whether this tradition of Hippocrates planting the tree is true or not, and whether Paul preached under this tree, I do not know. There is no way to verify either of these claims. The tree, however, is claimed to be the oldest tree in Europe today.

    How would the Apostle Paul have approached the people on Cos with the gospel or what would he have preached on the island? We could only conjecture. When Dr. Luke wrote the book of Acts he did not record all the events in Paul’s life because that was not his purpose. When he composed the book, under the inspiration of the Spirit of God, he selected those events that fit his overall theme, purpose and structure of the book. A detailed account of Paul’s visit to Cos was not included in Luke’s selection (Gooding 1995: 383-390). In fact, all he says about the visit to Cos is one line in one verse.

    Permit me to use my sanctified imagination for a few minutes as to what the Apostle Paul and his traveling companions might have done on the island. I can imagine Paul disembarking from the ship and proclaiming the gospel of God’s grace to the people of the island. His first objective, as was his custom, might have been to make contact with the Jewish community on the island, if there was one on the island. In fact, only a few months before, he penned his missionary strategy in a letter to the church in Rome. He wrote, “For I am not ashamed of the gospel of Christ, for it is the power of God to salvation for everyone who believes, for the Jew first and also for the Greek” (Rom. 1:16). If there was a synagogue he would have proclaimed the Lord Jesus as the Messiah of Israel and the fulfillment of the Messianic passages in the Hebrew Scriptures.

    Or, perhaps at the urging of Dr. Luke, they walked out to the Asklepieion for a sight-seeing tour. As they approached the shrine, the entrance to the complex was on the northeast side of the complex through a propylon (gate) that opened up into a large open courtyard with a horseshoe shaped stoa around it built during the Hellenistic period. They would not have seen the Roman baths to their left (east) because that was built during the 3rd century AD. As they approached the stairs leading to the second level they would have observed to the left of the stairs, springs in the retaining wall. To the right was a small, recently built temple that was built by the wealthy doctor and personal physician to the emperors, Gaius Xenophon. They would have observed a statue on a base with an inscription, probably dedicated to Emperor Nero.

    As they ascended the stairs to the second terrace, a large altar, built in the middle of the 4th century BC, came into view. Their tour-guide would have informed them that it was probably built by the sons of the famous artist Praxiteles. To the right of the altar was an Ionic temple to Asclepius dating to the 3rd century BC. To the left of the temple (south) was the priest’s residence, called an “Abaton,” where the sick waited for the priest to diagnose their sickness and proscribe a cure. The diagnosis was based on the appearance of Asclepius in a dream of the sick person. Behind the Abaton, in the southwest corner, was the entrance to the sacred spring. To the left of the altar (east) was a temple in the Corinthian order. This would not have been visible to Paul and Luke because that was not built until the 2nd century AD.

    As they climbed to the third terrace, the prominent Doric temple came into view. This structure was dedicated to Asclepius in the 2nd century BC and surrounded by a stoa. Many years later, this temple was turned into a church called the Panayia Tarsou.

    Or, as tradition states, the Apostle Paul might have preached under the plane tree of Hippocrates in the city of Cos. If so, what might have been the text he used, or the Bible story he would tell? The Gospel of John would not be written for another 35 years or so, but Paul might have been aware of the event described in John chapter five. Paul grew up and was educated in Jerusalem (Acts 22:3). He knew the city well. He had made several trips to the Holy City after his conversion and conferred with some of the original Twelve Apostles, including the Apostle John (Gal. 2:9). Most likely, someone, possibly the Apostle John, recounted the event of the man with the infirmity 38 years who laid in the “Beth Hesed” (the “house of mercy”) in Jerusalem (Franz 1989: 24-28; 2017: 125-133).

    It is my understanding that the “House of Mercy” was a healing shrine dedicated to the Semitic healing deity, Eshmun, who was known in the Greek world as Asclepius. What an opportunity the apostle had to proclaim the Lord Jesus as the true Great Physician. Everybody in his audience knew of the Asklepieion on the island. Perhaps some had been there for healing; maybe others had just disembarked from the ship in order to visit the famous healing shrine. Just as John would use this miracle, or sign, to present the truth “that you may believe that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God, and believing you might have life through His name” (20:31), so likewise Paul. He would proclaim the Lord Jesus as the Great Physician who not only heals the body, but also makes the soul whole and regenerates the spirit. Something Asclepius could not do!

    What was going through Dr. Luke’s mind as the ship approached Cos? He could not help but see the Asklepieion situated on the slopes behind the city. He knew this was the home of Hippocrates, the father of medicine, and the location of the famous medical center. I believe that Dr. Luke approached the island with mixed emotions. On the one hand, he was indebted to Hippocrates for much of what he knew about medicine. Yet on the other hand, he could not accept Asclepius as a healing deity. In fact, in his research for his gospel, Luke records many of the healing miracles of Jesus (Hobart 1882). This caused Luke to worship the Lord Jesus Christ as the Great Physician. Dr. Luke was thankful that Hippocrates broke the bondage of superstition among the Greeks of his day. They believed that a person was sick because the Greek gods and goddesses were angry with them. People would then offer sacrifices in hope of appeasing the offended god or goddess. Hippocrates, on the other hand, based on his careful observations of his patients, said: “No, a person is sick because of the way they live. In order to get well, they must change their lifestyle.” He understood we live in a “cause and effect” world. The Apostle Paul would go one step further and say sin was the root cause of sickness and ultimately death.

    Reflections on the Apostle Paul’s Visit to Cos

    The Apostle Paul would have “seized the moment” to proclaim the gospel as he always did. He saw how blinded the people were to a god who was not a god at all and proclaimed to them the Lord Jesus as the Great Physician and the only One who could truly heal a person (cf. 1 Cor. 8:4-6). With the book of Romans fresh in his mind, (he had written it only a few months before), Paul would have gone to the “root of the matter” and declared that sickness and disease was the result of sin. Ultimately, death was the result of sin (Rom. 6:23a; James 1:15). There were only a few exceptions to this universal law. The first was the Patriarch Job. God in His sovereignty allowed Satan to afflict Job with boils without him knowing about it (Job 2: 1-8). Also, the Lord Jesus healed a man who was blind from birth so that the works of God might be revealed in him (John 9:1-3). The third example was Paul himself. The Lord gave him an unnamed infirmity in order to keep him humble about all the revelations that he received from the Lord (2 Cor. 12: 5-10).

    The problem of sin, however, affected everyone, Jew and Gentile alike. Paul wrote in Romans, “For all have sinned and come short of the glory of God” (3:23). The only solution to this problem is putting ones faith in the Lord Jesus, and Him alone, as the One who died on Calvary’s cross to pay for all sin and rose again from the dead three days later (Rom. 6:23b). If anyone would puts his  trust, or believe, in Him he can have forgiveness of his sins, a home in heaven, be justified and declared righteous by a holy God and clothed with His righteousness and be able to enter God’s presence forever (Romans 4 and 5). Have you trusted the Lord Jesus as your Savior?

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    1984   Writings of Hippocrates. Vol. 1. Trans. by W. Jones. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University. Loeb Classical Library 147.

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    1976   The Jewish Wars, Books 1-3. Vol. 2. Trans. by H. Thackeray. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University. Loeb Classical Library 203.

    1986   Antiquities of the Jews. Book 12-14. Vol. 7. Trans. by R. Marcus. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University. Loeb Classical Library 365.

    1980   Antiquities of the Jews. Book 15-17. Vol. 8. Trans. by R. Marcus and A. Wikgren. Cambridge, MA: Harvard university. Loeb Classical Library 410.

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    1989a Natural History. Books 3-7. Vol. 2. Trans. by H. Rackham. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University. Loeb Classical Library 352.

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    1989b Natural History. Books 20-23. Vol. 6. Trans. by W. Jones. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University. Loeb Classical Library 392.

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    2006   The Historical Analysis of Aspirin Discovery. Its Relation to the Willow Tree and Antiproliferative and Anticancer Potential. Cell Proliferation 39: 147-155.

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  • 17Jun

    LL Paul and Places – Via Egnatia

    Paul and Places Comments Off on LL Paul and Places – Via Egnatia

    The Via Egnatia was an important Roman road crossing Ancient Macedonia and Thrace. Originally this road was built to move the Roman war machine to the East, later it was used by the Early Church to spread the Gospel of peace to a pagan world. This article will discuss the history, archaeology, and construction of this ancient road and the Biblical people and events associated with it.

    Click here to download and read “How Beautiful are the Feet” on the Via Egnatia”.

  • 25Apr

    The World of the New Testament in New York City

    Other Studies, Paul and Places Comments Off on The World of the New Testament in New York City

    There are two special exhibitions in New York City that illustrate the World of the New Testament.

    The first is at the Onassis Center in the Olympic Tower on 5th Ave. This exhibit is entitled: “God’s and Mortals at Olympus.” All the objects from this display come from the city of Dion, a Roman colony in the First Century AD, at the base of Mount Olympus. The port of Dion was probably where the Apostle Paul embarked on a ship to Athens on his Second Missionary Journey (Acts 17:14). Two highlights of this exhibition are a headless cult statue of Zeus Hypsistos (“Almighty”) and a mosaic of the epiphany of Dionysus, the god of wine and merry making. This exhibition is open until June 18, 2016. There are free guided tours on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday at 1 PM. Admission is FREE.

    For further information: http://www.onassisusa.org/exhibition.php?m=3&h=11

    The second special exhibition is at the Metropolitan Museum of Art on 5th Ave. and is entitled “Pergamon and the Hellenistic Kingdoms of the ancient World.” One-third of the 264 artworks on display come from the Pergamon Museum in Berlin. The church at Pergamon was one of the seven churches in the early chapters or the Book of the Revelation to receive a letter from the Lord Jesus (Rev. 2:12-17). Three highlights of this exhibit are the 11-foot wide painting of the acropolis by the 19th century German artist Friedrich von Thiersch; a model of the altar of Zeus that some commentators suggest is the “Satan’s throne” (Rev. 2:13); and a 13 foot tall statue of Athena Parthenos, similar to the one in the Parthenon in Athens, but on a much smaller scale. This exhibition closes on July 17, 2016. Admission is free with museum admission. Their website says: If you buy tickets at a museum ticket counter, the amount you pay is up to you. Please be as generous as you can. Suggested admission is $25 for adults, $17 for seniors, $12 for students, and free for children under 12.

    For further information: http://www.metmuseum.org/exhibitions/listings/2016/pergamon

  • 21Jan

    LUKE THE PHYSICIAN: with “Medicine for the Souls”

    Paul and Places Comments Off on LUKE THE PHYSICIAN: with “Medicine for the Souls”

    by Gordon Franz

    Introduction
    Eusebius (AD 260-340), considered to be the Father of Early Church History, described Luke the Physician in these terms: “Luke, who was by race an Antiochian and a physician by profession, was long a companion of Paul, and had careful conversation with the other Apostles, and in two books left us examples of the medicine for the souls which he had gained from them” (Eccl. Hist. 3.4.6; LCL 1:197).

    Human beings are made in the image of the Triune God, thus we are a tricotomous (three-part) being with a body, soul and spirit (cf. Gen. 1:26-27; 1 Thess. 5:23). The Apostle Paul concluded his first epistle to the Thessalonians with these words: “Now may the God of peace Himself sanctify you completely; and may your whole spirit, soul, and body be preserved blameless at the coming of our Lord Jesus Christ.” In this essay, we will examine the life of Dr. Luke and see how his life and his writings ministered, not only to the soul as Eusebius said, but to the whole person – body, soul and spirit. Dr. Luke used the 52 chapters of the gospel that bears his name and the Book of Acts to minister to our physical needs (body), emotional needs (soul), and spiritual needs (spirit).

    Dr. Luke is only mentioned by name three times in Paul’s epistles (Col. 4:14; Philemon 24; 2 Tim. 4:11), although he might be hinted at on several other occasions. When he wrote his gospel and the book of Acts, he did not mention his name at all (Acts 1:1), nor did he mention his brother Titus. Dr. Luke was a humble person and he did not want to call attention to himself or his family, but rather, he wanted to point people to the Person of the Lord Jesus Christ and the work of the Holy Spirit in His Church.

    His Ethnicity – An Antiochian Gentile
    At the end of Paul’s epistle to the church at Colosse, written about AD 62, he sent greetings from different people who were laboring with him in Rome, even though he was under house arrest and waiting for his trial before Nero. He wrote: “Aristarchus my fellow prisoner greets you, with Mark the cousin of Barnabas (about whom you received instructions: if he comes to you, welcome him), and Jesus who is called Justus. These are my only fellow workers for the kingdom of God who are of the circumcision; they have proved to be a comfort to me. Epaphras, who is one of you, a bondservant of Christ, greets you, always laboring fervently for you in prayers, that you may stand perfect and complete in all the will of God. For I bare him witness that he has a great zeal for you, and those who are in Laodicea, and those in Hierapolis. Luke the beloved physician and Demas greet you” (Col. 4:10-14).

    These verses imply that Dr. Luke was a Gentile. Paul recounted greetings from Aristarchus, (John) Mark, and Jesus/Justus and identified them as being of the circumcision, i.e. they were Jewish. The next three names, by implication, were Gentiles: Epaphras, Luke, and Demas. Luke may also have been a “God-fearer,” a Gentile who followed the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, but who did not undergo circumcision in order to enter the Jewish nation.

    As previously mentioned Eusebius stated that Luke was “by race an Antiochian.” Sir William Ramsay, the noted authority on the historicity of the Book of Acts, pointed out that: “Eusebius, however, does not say that Luke was an Antiochian; he merely speaks of him as ‘being according to birth of those from Antioch.’ The curious and awkward expression is obviously chosen in order to avoid the statement that Luke was an Antiochian” (1896: 389). He went on and conjectured that Luke had some kind of family connection with Antioch. On the other hand Jerome, a near contemporary of Eusebius, stated that Luke was “a physician of Antioch” (Lives, 1994: 363). I will assume in this essay that he had some personal connection with Antioch.

    Dr. Luke had the distinct honor of being the only non-Jewish writer of the New Testament. If that is the case, then it would rule out Church traditions that identified him with Lucius (Acts 13:1; Rom. 16:21; Wenham 1991b; Lewis 2010), or one of the “seventy” (Luke 10:1-20), or the companion of Cleopus on the road to Emmaus (Luke 24:13-33). In fact, Luke implied in the introduction to his gospel that he had not seen the Lord, but rather, heard about events in the life of the Lord Jesus from other eye-witnesses (Luke 1:2).

    It is hinted in the Book of Acts that he is an Antiochian. He mentioned this city a number of times and gave details of it and showed some “civic pride” (Acts 11:19-30; 13:1; 14:26-28; 15:22, 30-35; 18:22). Interestingly, when he wrote about the six deacons in Jerusalem who were waiting on tables, he mentioned them by name, but only Nicolas is identified by where he was from – Antioch (Acts 6:5). Luke also mentioned the fact that the believers in the Lord Jesus were first called Christians at Antioch (11:26).

    His Profession – Physician
    During Paul’s first imprisonment in Rome, he wrote to the believers in Colosse and identified Luke as: “the beloved physician” (Col. 4:14). Reading through the Gospel of Luke and the Book of Acts in Greek, one is struck with the abundant use of medical terminology in these books (Hobart 1882; with words of caution from Marx 1980a: 168-172).

    Luke is the only gospel writer that recorded Jesus’ statements about physicians. “Physician, heal yourself!” (Luke 4:23). “Those who are well have no need of a physician, but those who are sick” (Luke 5:31). He also extended “professional courtesy” to his fellow doctors when he recounted the events surrounding the woman with the issue of blood for twelve years. John Mark writes, “Now a certain woman had a flow of blood for twelve years, and had suffered many things from many physicians. She had spent all that she had and was no better, but rather grew worse” (5:25-26). Dr. Luke toned his account down in an almost clinical statement about the inability of the woman to get healed: “Now a woman, having a flow of blood for twelve years, who had spent all her livelihood on physicians and could not be healed by any” (8:43).

    It is interesting to conjecture where Dr. Luke got his medical training. There were important Greek medical centers in Pergamum, Tarsus, Athens, Alexandria in Egypt, Berytus (Beirut in Lebanon), Laodicea ad Mare (“by the sea,” Latakia in Syria), and the Asklepion shrine on the island of Cos that was established in honor of Hippocrates, the father of modern medicine. Interestingly, Luke did not record anything about this medical center or what transpired on the island when he and the Apostle Paul landed on the island on their way to Jerusalem at the end of Paul’s third missionary journey. All Dr. Luke recorded was: “And it came to pass that, that when we had departed from them [the Ephesian elders] and set sail, running a straight course we came to Cos, the following day to Rhodes, and from there to Patara” (Acts 21:1).

    Hippocrates is known as the father of modern medicine because he broke from the traditional Greek view of sickness and disease. In his day it was believed that a person was sick because the gods were angry at the individual. So the solution to the problem was to offer sacrifices to the offended deity. On the other hand, Hippocrates brought medicine into the realm of science. He diagnosed the patient ailments and disease by his clinical observation of the body and enquired about the patient’s lifestyle. Hippocrates also understood the inner workings of the body because he dissected some of his patients, presumably after they died! Hippocrates believed in a cause and effect relationship between the patient and the disease. In essence, you were sick because of your lifestyle – what you ate, what you drank, what you did or did not do to your body. If you were sexually promiscuous, chances are you would get a sexually transmitted disease! This was interesting because in the Greek world, the gods and goddesses were immoral and sexually promiscuous and the people just emulated their deities. So why should the gods be angry at the people and give them a sexually transmitted disease if the people were only emulating the gods?! This does not make sense. I’m sure Hippocrates understood the inconsistency of Greek mythology which led him to the conclusion that you got sick because of your lifestyle.

    Hippocrates also looked for natural remedies for people’s sickness. On the island of Cos there was a white willow tree. Hippocrates observed that the bark and leaves from this tree cause the pain in a patient to diminish or cease. Only recently did scientists analyze the bark from this tree and found out that the active ingredient is what is found in Aspirin. Hippocrates was 2,300 years ahead of Beyer Aspirin!

    In the Greek world, medicine was considered an art, or a philosophy, but not so much a science. There were at least two philosophical schools of thought concerning medicine and healthcare in Luke’s day. The first school of thought had been championed by the Athenian philosopher Plato (427 – 347 BC). In this philosophy, the doctor made medical, and health care, decisions to advance the good of the society, thus their primary job was to protect the welfare of the state (Grey 2011: 29-41). Plato wrote: “… but that, when bodies were diseased inwardly and throughout, he did not attempt by diet and by gradual evacuations and infusions to prolong a wretched existence for the man and have him beget in all likelihood similar wretched offspring? But if a man was incapable of living in the established round and order of life, he did not think it worth while to treat him, since such a fellow is of no use either to himself or to the state” (Republic 407D; LCL 5:279).

    On the other hand, the Hippocratic school of thought on medicine and healthcare was patient centered and emphasized the doctor/patient relationship. The first principle of Hippocrates was “Do no harm to the patient.” The Hippocratic Oath still stands as a cornerstone in modern medicine and it even forbids doctor assisted suicide and abortion. The Hippocratic School was patient oriented, and not state oriented.

    Again, it could be conjectured which school of thought Dr. Luke might have favored. Dr. Luke was called a “beloved physician” indicating that he cared for his patients, and was also the personal physician to the Apostle Paul. This would suggest that Dr. Luke followed the Hippocratic philosophy and not the statist Platonic philosophy. (For a discussion of some of the other philosophies, see Marx 1980a).

    James Smith, a classical scholar and yachtsmen, has also suggested that Luke was at one time a ship doctor because he was versed in nautical matters, and described them in the appropriate language of seamanship (1978: 21). Luke used many detailed nautical terms when he recorded the voyage to Rome in Acts 27-28. (1978: 20-28).

    A Possible Reconstruction of His Life
    The Scriptures are silent as to when or where Dr. Luke came to faith in the Lord Jesus Christ as his Savior. We do know that the Apostle Paul did not lead him to the Lord; otherwise, he would have called him his son in the faith. Perhaps he was part of the Hellenist (Greek) group was the converted in Acts 11:20-21.

    If it is reliable, there is an interesting addition in Acts 11:28 of the Codex Bezae D, a 5th century AD manuscript that is now housed at Cambridge University. It would demonstrate that Luke was part of the early church at Antioch. It reads: “And in these days prophets came from Jerusalem to Antioch. And there was much rejoicing; and when we gathered together one of them [Agabus] stood up and said” by the Spirit that there would be a famine (11:27-28). The word “we” is a late addition to the text, but it may reflect an earlier account that Dr. Luke was in Antioch at the time of the famine. The Apostle Peter was also in Antioch at this time and it would account for how and where Luke got his information about Peter when he wrote Acts 1-12 (Finegan 1998: 189).

    Jerome, in his Lives of the Illustrious Men, wrote that Luke was: “An adherent of the Apostle Paul, and companion of all his journeying.” Does that mean Luke was with Paul and Barnabas on their first missionary journey (AD 47-48)? Luke does not say “we” were there, yet if the account is read carefully, it does sound like an eye-witness account.

    In the Book of Acts, there are three “we-sections” (Acts 16:10-40; 20:5-21:18; 27:1-28:14). These are passages where Luke includes himself in the narrative because he was with the Apostle Paul. The first “we-passage” occurs during Paul’s second missionary journey (AD 49-50). Paul, Silas, and Timothy arrived at Alexandria Troas. While there, Paul had a vision of a man from Macedonia who said, “Come over to Macedonia and help us” (Acts 16:9). Luke then records: “Now after he had seen the vision, immediately we sought to go to Macedonia, concluding the Lord had called us to preach the gospel to them” (16:10). Luke now included himself with the Apostle Paul and his team. William Ramsey suggested that Luke was the man who appeared in the vision to Paul, but others do not concur with his view. When they arrived at Philippi, Paul and Silas, both Jews, were arrested and brought before the magistrates (Acts 16: 19-21). Luke and Timothy are not arrested because both were Gentiles. After Paul’s release from prison, the magistrates encouraged Paul and his party to leave the city. They did and Luke continued the narrative by saying, “Now when they had passed through Amphipolis and Apollonia, they came to Thessalonica” (17:1). Luke is no longer with them because he stayed back at Philippi. Some have suggested this was his home town, or at least his adopted home town.

    Luke does not include himself in his narrative again until the second “we-section” at the end of Paul’s third missionary journey (April/May AD 57). Luke joined Paul and seven other brothers who were taking the collection to the needy saints in Jerusalem (Acts 20:5-21:18).

    In the Land of Israel
    Dr. Luke went to Jerusalem with Paul at the end of his third missionary journey. After Paul’s arrest in Jerusalem and imprisonment in Caesarea, nothing is heard of Dr. Luke until Paul appealed to Caesar and boarded a ship towards Rome. It was at this time that Luke and Aristarchus boarded the ship along with Paul (20:4, cf. 27:2). What was Dr. Luke doing for the two years (AD 57-59) while Paul was in prison? I am certain that he was one of those visiting Paul in prison (Acts 24:23). But more than that, most likely, he used this time to gather material for his gospel.

    In the beginning of the Gospel of Luke it is written: “Inasmuch as many have taken in hand to set in order a narrative of those things which have been fulfilled among us, just as those who from the beginning were eyewitnesses and ministers of the word delivered them to us, it seems good to me also, having had perfect understanding of all things from the very first, to write to you and orderly account, most excellent Theophilus, that you may know the certainty of those things in which you were instructed” (1:1-4). There are several things to note in this passage. First, there were other gospels already circulating. According to Church tradition, Matthew was the first gospel written, and Mark, writing on behalf of Peter, was the second gospel written. Both were composed and circulating before the middle of the 40’s of the First Century AD. Second, eyewitness accounts of the life of the Lord Jesus were given to Luke, and probably Aristarchus [“delivered them to us”].

    Luke took advantage of this time in the Land of Israel (cf. Matt. 2:21) and visited the sites in Jerusalem, Samaria, Perea, and Galilee where the Lord Jesus had ministered and interviewed the people who had seen and heard the Lord Jesus. I am sure he spent time in Nazareth talking with Mary, the mother of the Lord Jesus, and obtained the details of the birth of the Lord Jesus from her. The account in Luke 1 and 2 was written in medical language. Perhaps he stopped in Naim to interview the widow woman’s son who was raised from the dead (Luke 7:11-17), an account that only Dr. Luke recorded and was a medical miracle!

    The third thing to notice is that the gospel was addressed to the “most excellent Theophilus.” The title “most excellent” seems to suggest he was a high ranking Roman official. The identity of this individual has been debated in scholarly circles and a number of individuals have been suggested. The most interesting and intriguing possibility that I have found so far, and probably the most plausible, is Werner Marx’s thesis that Theophilus was King Agrippa II (1980b: 17-26). You will recall Agrippa’s famous line after the Apostle Paul gave his defense and testimony at the Praetorium in Caesarea. He said to Paul, “Thou almost persuaded me to be a Christian!” (26:28). The Gospel of Luke was written to remind Agrippa II “that you may know the certainty of those things in which you were instructed” by the Apostle Paul (Luke 1:4; Marx 1980b: 21-22).

    The Voyage to Rome
    The third “we-passage” is Acts 27:1-28:16 and recounted the voyage to Rome in AD 59-60. Paul, Luke, and Aristarchus embarked on a ship bound for Adramyttium. When they reached the port of Myra they transferred to an Alexandrian grain ship headed for Rome. Dr. Luke gave a vivid nautical description of the journey, the storm, and the shipwreck on Malta.

    While on Malta, Paul and Luke had a healing ministry. “And it happened that the father of Publius lay sick of a fever and dysentery. Paul went into him and prayed, and he laid his hands on him and healed (iasato) him. And when this was done, the rest of those on the island who had diseases also came and were healed (etherapeutonto)” (Acts 28:8-9). Two different Greek words are used in this passage for healing. Paul “healed” Publius’ father by prayer and faith (28:8), but Luke cured the sick people with medical treatment (28:9; Harnack 1907: 179. 28:3-10; Ramsay 1956: 16-17). The spiritual and physical go hand-in-hand in a healing ministry

    With Paul in Rome
    During the Apostle Paul’s first imprisonment in Rome (AD 60-62) he was under house arrest while waiting his trial before Nero. He was allowed to have visitors and Dr. Luke was one who attended his physical and medical needs. When Paul wrote to the saints in the Lycus Valley, he sent greetings from Luke. “Luke the beloved physician and Demas greet you” (Col. 4:14). “Epapheas, my fellow prisoner in Christ Jesus, greets you. As do Mark, Aristarchus, Demas, Luke, my fellow laborers” (Philemon 23-24).

    Luke was known in Colosse and by Philemon who also lived in Colosse. This has raised some interesting questions. When did they meet Luke? Had he been to the Lycus Valley? If so, when? I would like to suggest that Luke had been through the Lycus Valley on his way to Philippi. A possible reconstruction of events is that Peter, along with Silvanus and John Mark, planted the churches in the Lycus Valley in AD 40-42. Peter and / or Paul suggested Dr. Luke go to Philippi in Macedonia. Luke travelled through the Lycus Valley and gave greetings from Peter and told them about Paul.

    While in Rome, Paul had daily prayer meetings in a rented apartment. These meetings included those who were ministering with him and to him (Col. 1:1; 4: 7-14). “We … praying always for you” (1:3); “We also … do not cease to pray for you” (1:9). Luke considered prayer important. When he wrote his gospel, he recorded a number of instances where Jesus prayed or talked about prayer. However, he recorded eight instances that were unique to his gospel, and not in the other three gospels. The Lord Jesus prayed at His baptism (3:21); at the Transfiguration (9:28-29); before choosing His apostles (6:12); for His enemies on cross (23:34, “Father, forgive them”); for His disciples to learn the lesson on prayer (11:1); and talked about prayer in the parable of the persistent friend (11:5-10); as well as two other parables on prayer (18:1-14): the widow and the unjust judge, as well as the Pharisee and tax collector when they were in the Temple praying. Dr. Luke was a man of prayer and thought the subject matter important.

    Did Luke Leave Paul in Rome?
    During Paul’s first imprisonment, he wrote a letter to the Philippians believers. This was a group of people who knew Luke well and he knew them. I found it odd that Paul does not send greetings from Luke back to the church at Philippi. One can only conjecture what happened. Perhaps Paul had sent him back to Philippi with the news of his imprisonment and the church sent Epaphroditus to Rome with the financial gift for Paul. If this is the case, more than likely Luke stayed in Philippi and was there when the letter arrived.

    Paul’s Fourth Missionary Journey
    After Paul was released from prison in AD 62, he went on a fourth missionary journey, one not recorded in the Book of Acts, but pieced together by looking at Paul’s later epistles. This journey lasted for about five years (AD 62-67). It included Crete, Macedonia, Asia Minor, Greece, and probably Spain. Luke apparently met Paul again when he traveled through Philippi and joined him in his travels. Paul was eventually arrested, probably at Nicopolis, and imprisoned in Rome again (AD 67). While there, he wrote to his son in the faith, Timothy, and asked him to come to Rome and to bring John Mark with him. He mentioned his loneliness because only Luke was with him (2 Tim. 4:11). Demas had deserted him, and Titus and Crescens were off on an apostolic mission. Yet Paul recognized that “the Lord stood with me and strengthened me” (4:17). Yes, the Great Physician and the beloved physician stuck closer to him than a brother (Prov. 18:24).

    Dr. Luke was probably at the beheading of Paul, perhaps at a distance. More than likely it was the good doctor who buried the body of his friend, co-worker, and fellow traveler on the road of life.

    Dr. Luke in Thebes of Boiotia
    Church tradition has said that after the death of Paul (AD 67), Dr. Luke went and ministered in the region of Boiotia in central Greece today, and particularly in Thebes of Boiotia. Tradition also stated that he wrote to Theophilus who was the governor of Achaia. If we follow Marx’s suggestion, however, that Theophilus was King Agrippa II. It is plausible that Luke handed him a copy of the Book of Acts when he went through Achaia to Rome during the winter of AD 68/69 (Josephus, Jewish Wars 4.499; LCL 3:149).

    Church tradition also stated that a mob arrested Luke in Thebes at the age of 84, flayed him alive and crucified him on an olive tree which some say is still there today. This ended the earthly life and ministry of the beloved physician, Dr. Luke. The story of his bones will be recounted elsewhere!

    Life Lessons to be Learned from the Life of Dr. Luke
    There are at least five lessons we can learn from the life of Dr. Luke, the beloved physician. The first lesson is that Dr. Luke showed humility. God lists seven things that He hates and considers an abomination. The first on God’s hate list is a proud look (Prov. 6:16-18). The opposite of pride is humility. Luke exemplified that by not calling attention to himself or his family, but rather the person of the Lord Jesus and the work of the Holy Spirit.

    Second, Dr. Luke used his medical training and ability as a mission field and a tool to further the gospel. Medicine, if one follows the Hippocratic philosophy, is patient centered and ideal for Christian involvement. Dr. Luke was a personal physician who was patient oriented. Thus the adjective “beloved” is used to describe him. The medical field could be a great missionary field for individual Christians. I once had a doctor, who on his business card placed the statement, “An assistant to the Great Physician” under his name. He acknowledged that he used medical treatments, but it was the Lord Jesus who was the Great Physician and ultimate Healer.

    A young lady who was in fellowship at Valley Bible Chapel graduated from nursing school and had to decide what area of nursing she wanted to go in. She chose the cancer ward. Folks, people who go there are terminal! They are about to check out of this life and into Eternity. Some people who go there may be in denial, but most people realize they are about to hit the end of the road. She chose this field because she wanted to show Christian love and compassion towards those who were in pain and about to die. It was also a great opportunity to share the gospel of the Lord Jesus because people want to know where they are going to spend eternity when they died: Heaven or Hell. Nancy made it clear that they could be assured of a home in Heaven when they died, also the forgiveness of sins, and the righteousness of God freely given to them, if they put their trust in the Lord Jesus Christ as their Savior (Eph. 2:8-9; Phil. 3:9; 1 John 5:13). It is because of His death on Calvary’s cross and His bodily resurrection from the dead that all sin had been paid for in full. All a person has to do, the only thing a person can do, is to trust the Lord Jesus as his or her Savior.

    Third, Dr. Luke demonstrated loyalty to his friend the Apostle Paul. Prov. 18:24 states: “A man who has friends must himself be friendly, but there is a friend who sticks closer than a brother.” We like to sermonize this passage and say it’s the Lord Jesus that always sticks closer than a brother and that is true, but Dr. Luke stuck close to Paul in his darkest hour when everybody else had left him for another task, or even deserted him completely. Haunting words, “Only Luke is with me.” How many people can we count on as friends who will be with us through thick and thin during our lonely hours when everybody seems to have deserted us? But to put the shoe on the other foot, how many people will we be loyal to when they are going through rough times? Do we stick closer to them than a brother?

    Fourth, Dr. Luke was a man of prayer. He did it and he wrote about it. How is your prayer life? Is it a priority in your life? Do you set a specific time apart for this spiritual exercise? Do you rejoice when you see God answer your prayers, sometimes in the most unexpected ways?

    Fifth, Dr. Luke ministered, by his life and writings, to the whole person. Human beings are made in the image of the Triune God, thus we are a tricotomous (three-part) being with a body, soul and spirit (Gen. 1:26-27; 1 Thess. 5:23). We should follow the example of Dr. Luke when we minister to an individual; he ministered to the whole person. At times we have to deal with peoples physical needs (body). The epistle to James had already been written. In it, James the son of Zebedee gives an example of lack of faith toward our fellow human being. There was somebody in the assembly who did not have cloth or food and asks his fellow believers for some of these items. One of the brothers or sisters said, “God bless you, be warmed and filled,” but did nothing to help that fellow believer. James said that persons faith is useless – dead (James 2:14-17). Dr. Luke took care of Paul’s physical needs when he was imprisoned in Rome. He also gave medical treatment to the people on Malta.

    At other times we need to attend to people’s emotional needs (soul). Dr. Luke ministered to Paul’s loneliness when others had left him. Finally, at times we need to attend to people’s spiritual needs (spirits). Dr. Luke was actively involved in Paul’s ministry as a co-laborer, but he had his own writing ministry that touched the spiritual being in each individual. The written Word of God, the Gospel of Luke and the Book of Acts, strengthened and encouraged individual believers in their walk with the Lord. As he wrote to Theophilus: “That you may know the certainty of those things in which you were instructed.” These books also built up the Body of Christ.

    So, how are we doing in our ministry to dispense spiritual medicine to the whole person – body, soul, and spirit?!

    Bibliography

    Bruce, F. F.

    1985 The Pauline Circle. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans.

    Eusebius

    1980 Ecclesiastical History. Vol. 1. Trans. by K. Lake. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University. Loeb Classical Library 153.

    Finegan, Jack

    1998 Handbook of Biblical Chronology. Revised Edition. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson.

    Grey, C. L.

    2011 The Battle for America’s Soul. Healthcare, the Culture War, and the Future of Freedom. Hickory, NC: Eventide.

    Harnack, Adolf

    2009 Luke the Physician. Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock. Reprint of 1907 edition.

    Hemer, Colin

    1977-1978 Luke the Historian. Bulletin of the John Ryland Library 60: 28-51.

    Hiebert, D. Edmond

    1992 In Paul’s Shadow. Friends and Foes of the Great Apostle. Greenville, SC: Bob Jones University.

    Hobart, William

    1882 The Medical Language of St. Luke; a Proof from Internal Evidence that “The Gospel According to St. Luke” and “The Acts of the Apostles” were Written by the Same Person, and that the Writer was a Medical Man. London: Longmans and Green.

    Jerome

    1994 Lives of Illustrious Men. Pp. 353-384 in Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers. Second Series, Vol. 3. Edited by P. Schaff and H. Wace. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson.

    Josephus

    1979 Jewish Wars. Books 4-7. Vol. 3. Trans. by H. Thackeray. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University. Loeb Classical Library 210.

    Lewis, Peter

    2010 From Iconium to the Home of Saint Luke: A Numismatic Odyssey. The Celator 24/11: 6-12.

    Marx, Werner

    1980a Luke, the Physician, Re-examined. Expository Times 91: 168-172.

    1980b A New Theophilus. Evangelical Quarterly 52/1: 17-26.

    Plato

    1937 The Republic. Books 1-5. Vol. 5. Trans. by P. Shorey. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University. Loeb Classical Library 237.

    Ramsay, William

    1956 Luke the Physician and Other Studies in the History of Religion. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House.

    Smith, James

    1978 The Voyage and Shipwreck of St. Paul. 4th edition. Grand Raids, MI: Baker. Reprint of 1880 edition.

    Wenham, John

    1991b The Identification of Luke. Evangelical Quarterly 63/1: 3-44.

  • 25Sep

    EMPRESS MESSALINA: A SUBMISSIVE AND CHASTE WIFE?

    Paul and Places Comments Off on EMPRESS MESSALINA: A SUBMISSIVE AND CHASTE WIFE?
    EMPRESS MESSALINA: A SUBMISSIVE
    AND CHASTE WIFE?
    Gordon Franz
    A Plausible Historical Illustration of 1 Peter 3:1-6
    The Apostle Peter wrote his first epistle from Rome about AD 43. In this letter, he admonishes wives to “be submissive to your own husbands, that even if some do not obey the word, they, without a word, may be won by the conduct of their wives, when they observe your chaste conduct accompanied by fear” (3:1-2, NKJV). He might have had Valeria Messalina, the 18 year old wife of Emperor Claudius, in the back of his mind as an ironic contrast when he penned these verses.
    Messalina was born in AD 25 and married her nearly 50 year old uncle Emperor Claudius at the tender age of 14 or 15. She became his third wife and bore him two children, Britannicus and Claudia Octavia. She reigned as empress for about 8 years until her sexual appetite got the best of her. She was caught by her husband in an adulterous relationship with Gaius Silius, the most handsome man in Rome, as well as being involved in a planned coup and was forced to do the honorable thing – commit suicide in AD 48 (Vagi 1:157-158; 2:271-272; Wend 1999:20-23; Rose 1999:48-49).
    While in Rome, Peter would have heard some of the gossip circulating around the city about the Imperial family. Among other things, Messalina was a devotee of the Greek goddess Hera (Juno was her Roman counterpart), the goddess and patron of marriage (Motte and Pirenne-Delforge 1996:683; RPC I/1:249).
    Yet it seems Messalina would sneak out of the palace after she was sure her husband was fast asleep and work the night shift at a local house of ill-repute (Juvenal, Satire 6:115-132; LCL 93; see also Pliny, Natural History 10:172; LCL 3:401). She also had a reputation of arranging orgies for the upper class women in the palace while Claudius was away (Dio Cassius, Roman History (60) 18:1-2; LCL 7:413). Messalina apparently was anything but a submissive and chaste wife! In fact, in her arrogance, she had no fear of anybody, including the Lord Jesus or her husband the emperor!
    Bibliography
    Burnett, Andrew; Amandry, Michel; and Ripolles, Pere Pau
    1992 Roman Provincial Coinage.  Vol. 1.  London and Paris: British Museum and Bibliotheque Nationale de France.  (Cited as RPC).
    Dio Cassius
    1924 Roman History.  Books 56-60.  Vol. 7.  Translated by E. Cary.  Cambridge, MA: Harvard University.  Loeb Classical Library.  Reprinted 2000.
    Juvenal
    1918 Satire.  Translated by G. G. Ramsay.  Cambridge, MA: Harvard University.  Loeb Classical Library.  Reprinted 1993.
    Motte, Andre; and Pirenne-Delforge, Vinciane
    1996 Hera. Pp. 682-683 in Oxford Classical Dictionary. Third edition. Edited by S. Hornblower and A. Spawforth. New York and Oxford: Oxford University.
    Pliny
    1983 Natural History.  Vol. 3.  Translated by H. Rackham.  Cambridge,
    MA: Harvard University.  Loeb Classical Library.  Second Edition.
    Rose, Joe
    1999 Valeria Messalina. The Celator 13/9: 48-49.
    Vagi, David
    1999 Coinage and History of the Roman Empire. 2 Vols. Sidney, OH: Coin World.
    Wend, David
    1999 Claudius: The Man, Times and Coinage – Part III. The Celator 13/4: 20-30.

    by Gordon Franz

    A Plausible Historical Illustration of 1 Peter 3:1-6

    The Apostle Peter wrote his first epistle from Rome about AD 43. In this letter, he admonishes wives to “be submissive to your own husbands, that even if some do not obey the word, they, without a word, may be won by the conduct of their wives, when they observe your chaste conduct accompanied by fear” (3:1-2, NKJV). He might have had Valeria Messalina, the 18 year old wife of Emperor Claudius, in the back of his mind as an ironic contrast when he penned these verses.

    Messalina was born in AD 25 and married her nearly 50 year old uncle Emperor Claudius at the tender age of 14 or 15. She became his third wife and bore him two children, Britannicus and Claudia Octavia. She reigned as empress for about 8 years until her sexual appetite got the best of her. She was caught by her husband in an adulterous relationship with Gaius Silius, the most handsome man in Rome, as well as being involved in a planned coup and was forced to do the honorable thing – commit suicide in AD 48 (Vagi 1:157-158; 2:271-272; Wend 1999:20-23; Rose 1999:48-49).

    While in Rome, Peter would have heard some of the gossip circulating around the city about the Imperial family. Among other things, Messalina was a devotee of the Greek goddess Hera (Juno was her Roman counterpart), the goddess and patron of marriage (Motte and Pirenne-Delforge 1996:683; RPC I/1:249).

    Yet it seems Messalina would sneak out of the palace after she was sure her husband was fast asleep and work the night shift at a local house of ill-repute (Juvenal, Satire 6:115-132; LCL 93; see also Pliny, Natural History 10:172; LCL 3:401). She also had a reputation of arranging orgies for the upper class women in the palace while Claudius was away (Dio Cassius, Roman History (60) 18:1-2; LCL 7:413). Messalina apparently was anything but a submissive and chaste wife! In fact, in her arrogance, she had no fear of anybody, including the Lord Jesus or her husband the emperor!

    Bibliography

    Burnett, Andrew; Amandry, Michel; and Ripolles, Pere Pau

    1992 Roman Provincial Coinage. Vol. 1.  London and Paris: British Museum and Bibliotheque Nationale de France.  (Cited as RPC).
    Dio Cassius

    1924 Roman History.  Books 56-60.  Vol. 7.  Translated by E. Cary.  Cambridge, MA: Harvard University.  Loeb Classical Library.  Reprinted 2000.

    Juvenal

    1918 Satire. Translated by G. G. Ramsay.  Cambridge, MA: Harvard University.  Loeb Classical Library.  Reprinted 1993.

    Motte, Andre; and Pirenne-Delforge, Vinciane

    1996 Hera. Pp. 682-683 in Oxford Classical Dictionary. Third edition. Edited by S. Hornblower and A. Spawforth. New York and Oxford: Oxford University.

    Pliny

    1983 Natural History.  Vol. 3.  Translated by H. Rackham.  Cambridge,

    MA: Harvard University.  Loeb Classical Library.  Second Edition.

    Rose, Joe

    1999 Valeria Messalina. The Celator 13/9: 48-49.

    Vagi, David

    1999 Coinage and History of the Roman Empire. 2 Vols. Sidney, OH: Coin World.

    Wend, David

    1999 Claudius: The Man, Times and Coinage – Part III. The Celator 13/4: 20-30.

  • 11Apr

    Mutiny on the HMS Corinth: Under-rowers for Captain Jesus

    Paul and Places, Uncategorized Comments Off on Mutiny on the HMS Corinth: Under-rowers for Captain Jesus
    MUTINY ON THE HMS CORINTH:
    Under-rowers for Captain Jesus
    Gordon Franz
    Introduction
    On April 28, 1789, eighteen sailors from the crew of the HMS Bounty, led by Acting Lieutenant Fletcher Christian, mutinied against Lieutenant William Bligh because he was allegedly cruel to them, but more than likely the mutineers were smitten by the beauty of the women on the islands of Tahiti and Pitcairn.
    In the First Century AD, the crew of the HMS Corinth (His Majesty’s Ship Corinth) was mutinying to the will of the captain of the ship, Captain Jesus, by following different oarsmen on the ship and not the captain in charge of the ship. The Apostle Paul had to address the issue of division within the church at Corinth.
    The Maritime Setting of Paul’s Ministry in Corinth
    At the end of the Apostle Paul’s second missionary journey, he and his traveling companions, Aquila and Priscilla, embarked on a ship at Cenchrea heading for Ephesus in Asia Minor (Acts 18:18-19). As they sailed east through the Saronic Gulf, with Attica on their port side (left side), they passed through the Bay of Eleusis and perhaps stopped at Eleusis to discharge or pick up passengers at the famous Eleusian shrine to Demeter. As they continued down the Straits of Salamis they observed a shrine to Artemis on the island of Salamis off the starboard side (right side) of the ship. Nearby was a trophy dedicated to the Greek navy and its victory over the Persian fleet on September 25, 480 BC (Pausanius, Descriptions of Greece 1.36.1; LCL 1:193).
    Perhaps Paul had read the account of this naval battle in the works of Herodotus (Persian Wars, Book 8) while at Tarsus University, or maybe, while he was in Athens, he had seen the theatrical production The Persians by Aeschylus in the Theater of Dionysius. Always looking for an opportunity to engage people in conversation, Paul might have asked one of the Greek sailors to recount the battle. This was like asking a new grandmother about her newly born grandchild! (“Want to see my pictures?”!). The Greek sailor might have regaled Paul with stories about the heroics of the victorious Greek fleet of trireme vessels and how they routed the Persians and their allies right under the nose of the Great King, the King of kings, Xerxes.
    The sailor would have had a good laugh when he pointed to the spot on Mount Aegaleos where Xerxes placed his throne to watch the battle. There Xerxes observed a Persian trireme commanded by his ally Queen Artemisia ram what Xerxes mistakenly thought was a Greek trireme in her attempt to escape the Greek forces. Xerxes reportedly exclaimed, “My men have become women, and my women men!” (Herodotus Persian Wars 8.87-88; LCL 4:85-87). Some have paraphrased this statement as: “My men fight like women and my woman fights like a man!”
    The Apostle Paul might have used his knowledge of trireme vessels he had gained in this conversation to drive home a point about the carnal activities of the believers in the church at Corinth. They were mutinying against Captain Jesus on the HMS Corinth!
    The Trireme Vessels
    The apostle would have been interested in the trireme vessels that both the Persian and Greek navies used because they provided him with a spiritual illustration that could be use in his epistle to the Corinthians. This illustration would be very meaningful to the civic-pride of the Corinthians because Thucydides (ca. 460-400 BC) reported that “Corinth was the first place in all Hellas, we are told, where triremes were built” (History of the Peloponnesian War 1.13.2; LCL 1:25).
    The wooden trireme vessels had three banks of oarsmen below deck. The side of the trireme was covered with wood, animal skin, or canvas of some kind, so the rowers could not see what was going on outside. At the stern (back) of the ship and above deck was the captain with a young man who beat the cadence on a drum. The captain would say “Stroke.” The drummer would beat the drum, “Boom.” The rowers would stroke their oars in unison. Again: “Stroke,” “Boom,” and another united stroke of the oars by the rowers. These oarsmen were called uparetas, which is usually translated “under-rowers.”
    Since the Roman navy still employed trireme vessels in their fleet, Paul would have been familiar with them. Thus, he filed away this information about the trireme ships and the “under rowers” for future use.
    The Problem in Corinth
    The Apostle Paul first visited Corinth in AD 50 during his second missionary journey and spent 18 months ministering in the city (Acts 18:11). He, more than anyone else, was responsible for establishing the church at Corinth (1 Cor. 3:10). Yet the Apostle Peter (Cephas) and Apollos from Alexandria had a great influence in the church as well.
    The first issue that Paul addressed when he wrote First Corinthians in AD 56 was the mutiny of the church at Corinth to the sovereign will of the head of the Church, the Lord Jesus Christ. There was division and contention within the church (1 Cor. 1:10-11). Factions were being formed by followers of Paul, Apollos, Peter, and the real “pious” ones, Christ (1:12)! Paul labeled these divisions and factions as carnality (3:1-4).
    The Apostle Paul stated that he, Apollos, and Peter were fellow-workers laboring together, metaphorically, in agriculture (3:6-9) and building construction (3:9-11). Yet he pointed out that God ultimately gave the increase for the harvest (3:6-7) and the Lord Jesus was the foundation of the church at Corinth (3:11).
    Paul then painted another powerful word-picture that invoked civic pride, issued a call to unity, challenged the saints to work as a team, and encouraged them to follow the Sovereign Head of the Church, the Lord Jesus Christ.
    Under Rowers for Admiral Jesus
    Paul wrote: “Let a man so consider us, as servants (uparetas, “under-rowers”) of Christ and stewards of the mysteries of God” (1 Cor. 4:1). The word-picture of an “under-rowers” was well known to the saints in Corinth. When Paul wrote to “consider us,” he was referring to himself, Apollos, and Peter (1 Cor. 3:22), as oarsmen rowing together on the same ship for Captain Jesus!
    There are at least five aspects of “under-rowers” that Paul might have had in mind when he painted this word-picture. First, the under-rowers were not slaves, but they were all volunteers because they were citizens of the city-state. All believers in the Lord Jesus have “heavenly citizenship” (cf. Phil. 3:20-21), so should willingly volunteer for the Lord’s service.
    Second, as a member of an organized team of rowers, they were all on the same footing as each other. The Apostle Peter considered himself a “fellow elder” in the assembly where he was in fellowship and not elevated above the others (1 Pet. 5:1-4; a lesson in humility he learned from the Lord Jesus in the Upper Room, cf. John 13:4-17).
    Third, they rowed together. If all the under-rowers were “rowing to the beat of different drummers” the ship would be stranded in the water and would go nowhere! While there is diversity of spiritual gifts within the assembly, all believers are to work together to edify spiritually, and build up numerically, the Body of Christ (cf. 1 Cor. 12).
    Fourth, the under-rowers were below deck and could not see the captain, nor could they see outside, so they had to trust him to lead them into battle and finally into port. They were to row by faith, just as believers are to walk by faith, and not by sight! (cf. 2 Cor. 5:7; see also Peter’s take, 1 Pet. 1:7-9).
    Fifth, the under-rowers received no honor because only the captain was visible and he was the one who guided the ship into battle. This instilled humility in the oarsmen because they had to acknowledge that the victory belonged to the captain. At the Judgment Seat of Christ, the Lord Jesus will graciously reward the believer who labors for Him, in His strength, by His grace, and for His glory (cf. 1 Cor. 3:12-17). But the believer will humbly return those rewards to the feet of the Lord Jesus and acknowledge: “You are worthy, O Lord, to receive glory and honor and power; for You created all things, and by Your will they exist and were created” (Rev. 4:9-11).
    Bibliography
    LCL = Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press.

    by Gordon Franz


    Introduction
    On April 28, 1789, eighteen sailors from the crew of the HMS Bounty, led by Acting Lieutenant Fletcher Christian, mutinied against Lieutenant William Bligh because he was allegedly cruel to them, but more than likely the mutineers were smitten by the beauty of the women on the islands of Tahiti and Pitcairn.

    In the First Century AD, the crew of the HMS Corinth (His Majesty’s Ship Corinth) was mutinying to the will of the captain of the ship, Captain Jesus, by following different oarsmen on the ship and not the captain in charge of the ship. The Apostle Paul had to address the issue of division within the church at Corinth.

    The Maritime Setting of Paul’s Ministry in Corinth
    At the end of the Apostle Paul’s second missionary journey, he and his traveling companions, Aquila and Priscilla, embarked on a ship at Cenchrea heading for Ephesus in Asia Minor (Acts 18:18-19). As they sailed east through the Saronic Gulf, with Attica on their port side (left side), they passed through the Bay of Eleusis and perhaps stopped at Eleusis to discharge or pick up passengers at the famous Eleusian shrine to Demeter. As they continued down the Straits of Salamis they observed a shrine to Artemis on the island of Salamis off the starboard side (right side) of the ship. Nearby was a trophy dedicated to the Greek navy and its victory over the Persian fleet on September 25, 480 BC (Pausanius, Descriptions of Greece 1.36.1; LCL 1:193).

    Perhaps Paul had read the account of this naval battle in the works of Herodotus (Persian Wars, Book 8 ) while at Tarsus University, or maybe, while he was in Athens, he had seen the theatrical production The Persians by Aeschylus in the Theater of Dionysius. Always looking for an opportunity to engage people in conversation, Paul might have asked one of the Greek sailors to recount the battle. This was like asking a new grandmother about her newly born grandchild! (“Want to see my pictures?”!). The Greek sailor might have regaled Paul with stories about the heroics of the victorious Greek fleet of trireme vessels and how they routed the Persians and their allies right under the nose of the Great King, the King of kings, Xerxes.

    The sailor would have had a good laugh when he pointed to the spot on Mount Aegaleos where Xerxes placed his throne to watch the battle. There Xerxes observed a Persian trireme commanded by his ally Queen Artemisia ram what Xerxes mistakenly thought was a Greek trireme in her attempt to escape the Greek forces. Xerxes reportedly exclaimed, “My men have become women, and my women men!” (Herodotus Persian Wars 8.87-88; LCL 4:85-87). Some have paraphrased this statement as: “My men fight like women and my woman fights like a man!”

    The Apostle Paul might have used his knowledge of trireme vessels he had gained in this conversation to drive home a point about the carnal activities of the believers in the church at Corinth. They were mutinying against Captain Jesus on the HMS Corinth!

    The Trireme Vessels
    The apostle would have been interested in the trireme vessels that both the Persian and Greek navies used because they provided him with a spiritual illustration that could be use in his epistle to the Corinthians. This illustration would be very meaningful to the civic-pride of the Corinthians because Thucydides (ca. 460-400 BC) reported that “Corinth was the first place in all Hellas, we are told, where triremes were built” (History of the Peloponnesian War 1.13.2; LCL 1:25).

    The wooden trireme vessels had three banks of oarsmen below deck. The side of the trireme was covered with wood, animal skin, or canvas of some kind, so the rowers could not see what was going on outside. At the stern (back) of the ship and above deck was the captain with a young man who beat the cadence on a drum. The captain would say “Stroke.” The drummer would beat the drum, “Boom.” The rowers would stroke their oars in unison. Again: “Stroke,” “Boom,” and another united stroke of the oars by the rowers. These oarsmen were called uparetas, which is usually translated “under-rowers.”

    Since the Roman navy still employed trireme vessels in their fleet, Paul would have been familiar with them. Thus, he filed away this information about the trireme ships and the “under rowers” for future use.

    The Problem in Corinth
    The Apostle Paul first visited Corinth in AD 50 during his second missionary journey and spent 18 months ministering in the city (Acts 18:11). He, more than anyone else, was responsible for establishing the church at Corinth (1 Cor. 3:10). Yet the Apostle Peter (Cephas) and Apollos from Alexandria had a great influence in the church as well.

    The first issue that Paul addressed when he wrote First Corinthians in AD 56 was the mutiny of the church at Corinth to the sovereign will of the head of the Church, the Lord Jesus Christ. There was division and contention within the church (1 Cor. 1:10-11). Factions were being formed by followers of Paul, Apollos, Peter, and the real “pious” ones, Christ (1:12)! Paul labeled these divisions and factions as carnality (3:1-4).

    The Apostle Paul stated that he, Apollos, and Peter were fellow-workers laboring together, metaphorically, in agriculture (3:6-9) and building construction (3:9-11). Yet he pointed out that God ultimately gave the increase for the harvest (3:6-7) and the Lord Jesus was the foundation of the church at Corinth (3:11).

    Paul then painted another powerful word-picture that invoked civic pride, issued a call to unity, challenged the saints to work as a team, and encouraged them to follow the Sovereign Head of the Church, the Lord Jesus Christ.

    Under Rowers for Captain Jesus
    Paul wrote: “Let a man so consider us, as servants (uparetas, “under-rowers”) of Christ and stewards of the mysteries of God” (1 Cor. 4:1). The word-picture of an “under-rowers” was well known to the saints in Corinth. When Paul wrote to “consider us,” he was referring to himself, Apollos, and Peter (1 Cor. 3:22), as oarsmen rowing together on the same ship for Captain Jesus!

    There are at least five aspects of “under-rowers” that Paul might have had in mind when he painted this word-picture. First, the under-rowers were not slaves, but they were all volunteers because they were citizens of the city-state. All believers in the Lord Jesus have “heavenly citizenship” (cf. Phil. 3:20-21), so should willingly volunteer for the Lord’s service.

    Second, as a member of an organized team of rowers, they were all on the same footing as each other. The Apostle Peter considered himself a “fellow elder” in the assembly where he was in fellowship and not elevated above the others (1 Pet. 5:1-4; a lesson in humility he learned from the Lord Jesus in the Upper Room, cf. John 13:4-17).

    Third, they rowed together. If all the under-rowers were “rowing to the beat of different drummers” the ship would be stranded in the water and would go nowhere! While there is diversity of spiritual gifts within the assembly, all believers are to work together to edify spiritually, and build up numerically, the Body of Christ (cf. 1 Cor. 12).

    Fourth, the under-rowers were below deck and could not see the captain, nor could they see outside, so they had to trust him to lead them into battle and finally into port. They were to row by faith, just as believers are to walk by faith, and not by sight! (cf. 2 Cor. 5:7; see also Peter’s take, 1 Pet. 1:7-9).

    Fifth, the under-rowers received no honor because only the captain was visible and he was the one who guided the ship into battle. This instilled humility in the oarsmen because they had to acknowledge that the victory belonged to the captain. At the Judgment Seat of Christ, the Lord Jesus will graciously reward the believer who labors for Him, in His strength, by His grace, and for His glory (cf. 1 Cor. 3:12-17). But the believer will humbly return those rewards to the feet of the Lord Jesus and acknowledge: “You are worthy, O Lord, to receive glory and honor and power; for You created all things, and by Your will they exist and were created” (Rev. 4:9-11).

    Bibliography

    LCL = Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press.

  • 25Oct

    The Battle of Philippi: The Battle that Changed the Course of Western Civilization

    Paul and Places Comments Off on The Battle of Philippi: The Battle that Changed the Course of Western Civilization

    by Gordon Franz

    Introduction
    There are few events in world history that are “game changers,” that change the course of human history and civilization. December 7, 1941 stands out because it was a “day that will live in infamy.” That was the day the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor which led the United States into World War II.

    In antiquity, there were other dates. On September 25, 480 BC the battle of Salamis in Greece took place. In this naval battle the Greeks stopped the Persian advance into Europe.

    The Great Siege of Malta ended on September 8, 1565. The Ottoman’s were finally driven from the island at St. Paul’s Bay on September 11 of that year. The 8th is the Festival of Santa Maria because according to church tradition, the virgin Mary was born on that date. The lifting of the siege prevented the Ottoman’s from penetrating into Europe.

    The Moslem siege of Vienna was lifted on Sept. 11, 1683 by a combined army of Polish, German and Austrians soldiers led by a Polish king, Jan Sobieski, whom the pope and European leaders hailed as the “Savior of Western Civilization.” This was the furthest the Ottoman’s were able to penetrate into Europe from the east.

    Of course, September 11, 2001 changed the world as we know it. Moslems have long memories and dates are important! September 11, 2001 was like saying: “We’re just picking up where we left off!”

    Date
    In the year 42 BC, the month of October was a pivotal month in the history of Western Civilization. Two large Roman armies were amassed against each other on the plains to the west of the ancient city of Philippi in Macedonia. One army was led by the Liberators, Brutus and Cassius, and the other army was led by Mark Antony and Octavian, later to be known as Caesar Augustus. What was at stake in this conflict was which direction the Roman Republic would take. Dio Cassius (AD 150-235) pointed out: “Now as never before liberty and popular government were the issues of the struggle.  … One side was trying to lead them to autocracy, the other side to self-government” (Roman History 47.39.2; LCL 5: 197).

    Background
    More than two and a half years earlier, on the Eids of March, 44 BC (March 15), Julius Caesar was murdered by a conspiracy of Liberators lead by Marcus Brutus and Cassius. The Liberators commemorated this event by minting a denarius coin with a liberty cap in the center flanked by two daggers and the words “Eid Mar” underneath the cap.

    In their minds, Julius Caesar was a tyrannical dictator who had usurped the Roman constitution. Brutus and Cassius wanted to restore the Roman Republic to its constitution. One of their friends was Cicero, a great political thinker and orator. He was a strong advocate for the restoration of the Roman Republic back to its constitution. He did not participate in the conspiracy to assassinate Julius Caesar, but he did congratulate the assassins for a job well done.

    A quote attributed to Cicero about the state of the Roman Republic is this: “The budget should be balanced, the Treasury should be refilled, public debt should be reduced, the arrogance of officialdom should be tempered and controlled, and the assistance to foreign lands should be curtailed lest Rome become bankrupt. People must again learn to work, instead of living on public assistance.”

    In 1787, the Constitutional Convention decided on a constitutional republic for the United States. After the convention, Ben Franklin was asked what form of government we had. He replied, “We have a republic form of government, if we can keep it!” The United States is not a democracy, which is another word for “rule of the people by popular elections.” It is also another name for mob rule!

    After the death of Julius Caesar, the Second Triumvirate, comprised of Mark Anthony, Lepidus and Octavian, got together out of convenience to figure out what to do about a possible return of Brutus and Cassius. An army was needed in order to defend Rome from a possible attack by the Liberators. This would cost money because they had to raise an army. The three decided the best way to raise money was by proscription. In ancient Rome, that meant a wealthy person was declared an enemy of, or charged with crimes against, the State; a death sentence was pronounced upon them and they were executed. Their property was confiscated by the State, so that the family could not inherit the property. The Triumvirate drew up a list of 150 to 300 wealthy people that were to be executed in order to raise the necessary funds for a new Roman army. They also raised taxes on everybody as well as stole money from the Temple of the Vestal Virgins in the Forum (Plutarch, Antony 21:3, 4; LCL 9: 183).

    Among those on the proscription list was Cicero. Mark Antony had a personal vendetta against him because of what Cicero wrote about Antony. After Cicero was beheaded, his head and hands (the ones that wrote “Philippies”) were brought to Rome in 43 BC. Mark Anthony rejoiced and said, “Now let our proscriptions have an end” (Plutarch, Cicero 49:1; LCL 7:207).

    The Battle of Philippi
    Cicero’s property, along with other wealthy Romans, was confiscated and the money used by Mark Antony and Octavian to raise an army to fight Brutus and Cassius, friends of Cicero!

    Several ancient historians record an account of the battle of Philippi. The lengthiest discourse is by Appian, a Greek official in Alexandria, Egypt. He died in the first half of the 2nd century AD (Roman History 4:105-138; LCL 4:315-373).  Dio Cassius (AD 150-235) wrote a lengthy history of Rome that included the pivotal battle of Philippi (Roman History 47:35-49; LCL 5:189-217). Plutarch (AD 45-120) wrote a number of books comparing the lives of Greek personalities with a Roman counterpart, including Brutus and Mark Antony (Parallel Lives, Brutus 38-53; LCL 6: 209-247; Antony 22; LCL 9:183,185). Even Caesar Augustus boasts about, but I dare say exaggerates, his participation in the battle.

    Octavian and Mark Anthony set out from Rome with their armies. While they were crossing the Adriatic Sea, they sent out an advance search party to look for Brutus and Cassius along the Via Egnatia. The search party got as far as the pass overlooking Kavala, until Brutus and Cassius snuck around them and Octavian and Mark Antony’s forces retreated west.

    The armies of Brutus and Cassius set up their camps about 2 miles to the west of Philippi; Brutus, near the hills, and Cassius, to the left of the Via Egnatia.  Both armies were about a mile apart. When they arrived, Mark Antony and Octavian put their armies about a mile further to the west.

    The Liberators had the advantage and the superior positions. They were on elevated ground; Antony and Octavian’s forces were on the plain. Brutus and Cassius had fuel from the mountains, while Antony and Octavian had fuel from the marsh. Brutus and Cassius had water from the springs and river in the area; Anthony and Octavian had to dig wells in the marsh. The Liberators had their supplies from Thasos; on the other hand, Antony and Octavian had a much longer supply line with supplies coming from Amphipolis. The armies of the Liberators consisted of 19 legions, but some were incomplete. Antony and Octavian had a slight advantage with 19 complete legions. Brutus and Cassius had 20,000 cavalry, while Antony and Octavian had only 13,000 cavalry. During most of the campaign, Octavian was sick.

    The motivations to fight were different on each side. The Liberators were fighting for liberty, their Republic and freedom from tyrants. The forces with Mark Antony and Octavian were fighting to revenge the death of Julius Caesar, to claim the property of their enemies, and for their pay of 20,000 sestesces. But ultimately it was to rule the world!

    The First Battle: October 3, 42 BC
    The battle of Philippi actually took place in two separate phases. The first occurred on October 3rd, and the second, a few weeks later.

    The battle began by the forces of Mark Antony cutting a path through the marsh in order to get behind Cassius’ line, thus cutting of the Liberators supply line to sea. During this phase of the battle, Mark Antony vanquished Cassius’ forces, even though 8,000 of Cassius’ troops were killed and double the number for Mark Antony’s force died. Cassius, being an Epicurean and thinking Brutus’ forces were defeated as well, committed suicide. This occurred on his birthday with the help of Pindarus. Ironically, Cassius used the same dagger that he used to kill Julius Caesar!

    Brutus lost an experienced general and had his remains cremated and buried on the island of Thassos, just off the coast from Philippi. An interesting side note: In the Nov. 23, 1902 issue of the New York Times (p. 5) it was reported that the tomb of Cassius was discovered on the island of Thassos by Theodore Bent. I have tried to follow up on this report but have not been successful. Whether it is true or not, remains a mystery to me.

    Brutus, on the other hand, was victorious. His forces overran the camp of Octavian and plundered it, but they did not pursue the enemy. Their greed for material possessions robbed them of the ultimate victory over their foes!

    Octavian was fortunate to escape with his life. He had been sick the whole campaign. While lying in bed the night before the battle, he was warned in a dream to flee the camp. The superstitious Octavian heeded the warning and fled the camp. His life was spared and he went on to eventually rule the world!

    The first battle ended in a stalemate. Both sides won a victory and both sides suffered a defeat. But Brutus lost a good general. For the next three weeks, Brutus carried out a war of attrition with the opposing forces. Among other things, he diverts the river to flood the camps of Mark Antony and Octavian. Their troops were not happy campers!

    The Second Battle: October 23, 42 BC
    Just before the second battle of Philippi, there were several ill-omens for Brutus. On the night before the battle the phantom that appeared to him before and said, “I’ll see you at Philippi,” reappeared. I assume he said, “Hi! I’m back, remember me?” Also, just before the battle, two eagles engaged in an aerial combat above the battle field. The eagle that approached the battlefield from Brutus’ side lost. Brutus realized this was not going to be his day!

    By all accounts, Brutus should have won the day. He had superior forces and a superior position. Mark Antony and Octavian were running out of money and food, and their supplies were cut off. They also found out that the Liberators navies had defeated their navies in the Ionian Sea. Their forces were getting weaker. Brutus only finds this out right before the battle. From a military perspective, Brutus should have waited a bit longer, but the battle ensued.

    At the end of the day, Mark Antony was victorious. Brutus, a man of virtue and honor, committed suicide. Mark Antony had some respect for Brutus and gave him a proper Roman burial. He had Brutus cremated and his ashes sent home to Brutus’ mother. His head, however, was decapitated and sent to Rome to be placed at the foot of a statue of Julius Caesar!

    The Aftermath of the Battle
    Brutus and Cassius had both committed suicide. After the battle was over, a general amnesty was proclaimed and many of Brutus and Cassius forces joined Antony and Octavian. This was the high-point in the military career of Mark Antony. He was a great general, but he had the morals of an alley cat. He and Octavian divided up the Roman Empire. Mark Antony took the eastern part and began a relationship with Cleopatra of Egypt. Octavian on the other hand, was destined for imperial rule. The astrological sign he was born under, Capricorn, indicated he would rule the world.

    A number of veterans from this conflict retired from military duty and settled in Philippi after it was declared a Roman colony. Interestingly, when Paul wrote to the church at Philippi more than 100 years later, he uses military terminology when he calls Epaphroditus a “fellow soldier” (Phil. 2:25).

    An Historical Judgment
    History always makes value judgments. Usually the victor is portrayed in a good light, especially by his friends and willing accomplices in the media. On the other hand, the vanquished is generally put in a bad light because he is not around to defend himself. The axiom holds true: “Everybody loves a winner!”
    In this conflict we must ask, “Which side was the good side? Which side was the bad side? Who were the good guys? Who were the bad? Which side, if any, would the LORD God Almighty side with? Which side did Satan side with?”

    Historians always judge history through their theological lenses, their personal bias, or perspective. In the Popeye cartoon, who is the “bad guy”? It is Brutus. How many people do you know with the name Brutus? You may name your dog Brutus, but never your child. Ironically, John Wilkes Booth fancied himself to be a 19th century Brutus because he assassinated, from his political perspective, the tyrant Abraham Lincoln!

    I would like to suggest that God in His sovereignty allowed the “good” guys to lose the battle of Philippi!

    A Spiritual Perspective
    All history is really His-story because God is sovereign and He is in control of history in order to bring about His plan, program and purposes.  The Apostle Paul wrote of God’s plan in the book of Galatians: “But when the fullness of time had come, God sent forth His Son, born of a woman, born under the law, to redeem those who were under the law, that we might receive the adoption as sons” (Gal. 4:4, 5). God’s program included seventy weeks (“sevens”) that were determined upon the people of Judah and the Holy City of Jerusalem (Dan. 9:24-27). At the end of the sixty-ninth week, the Messiah (“Anointed”) would be “cut off, but not got Himself” (9:26).

    Satan was aware of this time frame and he prepared his puppet, Octavian – the “anointed one” – to rule and bring world peace, hoping that this would distract people from God’s Anointed, the Lord Jesus Christ (Ps. 2:2).
    Paul instructs believers in the Lord Jesus to pray for all people and “for kings and all who are in authority, that we may lead a quiet and peaceable life in all godliness and reverence” (1 Tim. 2:2). The Apostle Peter admonishes us to “Honor the king” (1 Pet. 2:13-17). Paul reminds Titus to “be subject to rulers and authorities” (Tit. 3:1).

    In whatever form of government we, the believers in the Lord Jesus, find ourselves in, we should remember that “our citizenship is in heaven, from which we also eagerly wait for the Savior, the Lord Jesus Christ, who will transform our lowly body that it may be conformed to His glorious body, according to the working to which He is able even to subdue all things to Himself” (Phil. 3:20, 21).

    So we must remember, God is sovereign and in control of history and He will bring about His plan, program and purposes.  After the battle of Philippi, that plan was to bring His Son into the world in order to redeem those who were under the law. After the death of the Lord Jesus on the Cross and His bodily resurrection, His plan is for believers to wait for His Son to return from Glory and change our lowly bodies. Until that day, we are to honor the king, pray for those in authority over us and be subject to those rulers.

    Bibliography

    Appian
    2000    Roman History.  Vol. 4.  Trans. by H. White.  Cambridge, MA: Harvard University.  Loeb Classical Library 5.

    Dio Cassius
    1989   Roman History.  Books 46-50.  Vol. 5.  Cambridge, MA: Harvard University.  Loeb Classical Library 82.

    Everitt, Anthony
    2003   Cicero.  The Life and Times of Rome’s Greatest Politician.  New York: Random House.

    Plutarch
    1993    Lives.  Dion and Brutus.  Timoleon and Aemilius Paulus. Vol. 6.  Trans. by B. Perrin.  Cambridge, MA: Harvard University.  Loeb Classical Library 98.

    1994   Lives.  Demosthenes and Cicero.  Alexander and Caesar. Vol. 7.  Trans. by B. Perrin.  Cambridge, MA: Harvard University.  Loeb Classical Library 99.

    1996    Lives.  Demetrius and Antony.  Pyrrhus and Gaius Marius.  Vol. 9.  Trans. by B. Perrin.  Cambridge, MA: Harvard University.  Loeb Classical Library 101.

    Suetonius
    1989    Lives of the Caesars.  Vol. 1.  Trans. by J. C. Rolfe.  Cambridge, MA: Harvard University.  Loeb Classical Library 31.

  • 07Apr

    WOULD THE APOSTLE PAUL HAVE BURNED A COPY OF THE KORAN?

    Paul and Places Comments Off on WOULD THE APOSTLE PAUL HAVE BURNED A COPY OF THE KORAN?

    by Gordon Franz

    Recently, a pastor in Florida burned a copy of the Koran (also spelled Quran). His stated reason was “to make an awareness of the radical element of Islam.” Unfortunately his actions led to tragic consequences. Riots ensued in Afghanistan because of what some termed “blasphemy against the Koran” and this violence led to deadly results.

    There is a popular bumper sticker on cars driven by some Christians: “WWJD?” that stands for “What Would Jesus Do?” What the Lord Jesus Christ, God manifest in human flesh, might have said was stated in His Sermon on the Mount: “You have heard that it was said, ‘You shall love your neighbor and hate your enemy.’ But I say to you, love your enemies, bless those who curse you, do good to those who hate you, and pray for those who spitefully use you and persecute you” (Matt. 5:43-44, all Scripture quotes from the New King James Bible). Did this pastor follow these instructions of the Lord Jesus?

    If the Apostle Paul were alive today, would he have burned a copy of the Koran or would he encourage believers to do so? There were two events that took place during Paul’s third missionary journey that could be instructive in answering this question and setting an example for believers in the Lord Jesus to follow.

    The Apostle Paul had a very dynamic and fruitful ministry in the city of Ephesus in Asia Minor. This trade center was the location of one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, the temple of Artemis/Diana. Tourists and pilgrims would flock from all over the Greco-Roman world to visit this magnificent edifice to the goddess of the hunt. Merchants hawked their wares trying to make money off the pilgrims visiting the shrine.

    The gospel, the power of God to salvation (Rom. 1:16), began to affect the economy of this tourist attraction. So much so, that the silversmiths who had a lucrative idol-manufacturing business making silver trinkets and shrines to sell to the pilgrims / tourists began to lose money because people were following the Lord Jesus and not worshipping Artemis. This defection occurred not only in Ephesus, but throughout the Province of Asia Minor because “all who dwelt in Asia heard the word of the Lord Jesus, both Jews and Greeks” (Acts 19:10).

    The shop foreman of the silversmith trade union, Demetrius by name, organized a mob action in conjunction with other craft unions. They met in the large theater of the city, with seating capacity for 25,000 spectators, in order to protest their economic downturn. Demetrius incited the mob by reminding them that they made their lucrative livelihood off the tourists that visit the temple of Artemis. He pointed a finger at the Apostle Paul for turning people away from the temple because he said that those things made with hands are not gods.  Demetrius ratcheted up his rhetoric by defending the honor of the goddess and saying the temple of Artemis would be despised throughout the Greco-Roman world (Acts 19:24-27). The crowd in its frenzy shouted with one accord for two hours, “Great is Artemis of the Ephesians”.¹

    During the uproar in Ephesus, the union thugs manhandled Gaius and Aristarchus, co-workers of the Apostle Paul, and dragged them into the theater (Acts 19:29). Paul, in his holy boldness, wanted to confront the confused and unruly mob in the theater. His disciples, and friendly government officials (the Asiarchs), thought otherwise and strongly advised Paul not to venture forth into the theater for fear the mob might do him bodily harm.

    The city clerk quieted the mob and said: “Men of Ephesus, what man is there who does not know that the city of the Ephesians is temple guardian of the great goddess Diana, and of the image which fell down from Zeus? Therefore, since these things cannot be denied, you ought to be quiet and do nothing rashly. For you have brought these men here who are neither robbers of temples nor blasphemers of your goddess” (Acts 19:35-37). The Artemis temple was the central bank of Asia Minor. Gaius and Aristarchus, and by extension the Apostle Paul had never stolen any money from the temple, nor bad-mouthed the goddess. The charge of blasphemy could not be pinned on Paul and his co-workers. If they had blasphemed the goddess, the city clerk would have had nothing to say in their defense.
    The Christians in Ephesus did not have to speak negatively of the goddess. They had a wonderful and positive message that was simple to proclaim. It was this: God loves the world! The Lord Jesus Christ, the Second Person of the Triune God, left the glories of heaven, lived a perfect, sinless life, and died on a cross outside the walls of the Holy City of Jerusalem in order to pay for all the sins of humanity. He bodily rose again from the dead and ascended into heaven where He sits at the right hand of God. The complete forgiveness of sins, a home in heaven, and the perfect righteousness of God is freely given to any and all who put their trust in the Lord Jesus Christ, and Him alone, for their salvation. There is nothing an individual can do to merit or earn salvation. It is a free gift, simply by putting one’s faith in the Lord Jesus (John 3:16; Rom. 4:5; Eph. 2:8-9; Phil. 3:9; Tit. 3:4-7; 1 John 5:13).

    Before the uproar in the theater of Ephesus, the Lord had done some unusual miracles through Paul in the city and many people believed in the Lord Jesus (19:11-18). After their salvation, some who had practiced sorcery burned their book on the subject that was worth a lot of money (Acts 19:19). This event cannot be used as a precedent to justify the burning of copies of the Koran. In this account, it was magicians who burned their own books, of their own accord, after they came to faith in the Lord Jesus and became a new creation in Christ (2 Cor. 5:17). The results of this action was the “word of the Lord grew mightily and prevailed” (19:20).

    If the apostle Paul were alive today, would he burn a copy of the Koran? The answer is “No, he would not.” He did not blaspheme the goddess Artemis. He and his co-workers, would not, and did not, take inflammatory steps that would be a stumbling block to the spread of the Gospel. Instead, he proclaimed that Gospel, the greatest news in the world, the love of the Lord Jesus for all humanity and His invitation to any and all to forsake their false gods and goddesses and trust Him alone for their salvation and the free gift of eternal life (1 Thess. 1:9). Have you trusted the Lord Jesus Christ alone?

    ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

    ¹ The Greek text of the Book of Acts records the Greek name for the goddess of the hunt, Artemis.  Some English translations give the Latin name, Diana, for the same goddess.

  • 12Feb

    THERMOPYLAE AND THE BOOK OF ESTHER

    Paul and Places Comments Off on THERMOPYLAE AND THE BOOK OF ESTHER

    by Gordon Franz

    Introduction
    The Battle of Thermopylae is one of the most heroic battles in the annals of military history. Three hundred Spartan soldiers, lead by their king Leonidas, engaged in a mission of “suicidal self-sacrifice” by holding off the mighty Persian army for three days at the pass at Thermopylae which was no more than 20 yards wide. This battle has been made into a Hollywood movie entitled, simply, “300” (2006).

    In the book of Esther, this battle and the Persian war against the Greeks, takes place between chapters 1 and 2 of the book. It would be included in the “after these things” (2:1).

    The Battle of Thermopylae
    The Greek historian Herodotus (ca. 484 BC – 430 BC), writing several decades after the battle of Thermopylae, is our main source for this event (Persian Wars, Book 7.175-233; LCL 3:491-549).

    Sparta was a military city-state with two kings that claimed to be the descendent of the demi-god Hercules. They were famous for their austerity and public military education. In Sparta, the women had a lot of freedom: “they could wrestle in the nude, inherit property, and, if they were married, publically insult bachelors at an annual festival (Strauss 2007: 73).” The Spartans had “unusual sexual customs, such as polyandry (wives having more than one husband each), socially acceptable wife-sharing, and institutionalized pederasty between a young male citizen warrior and a teenage boy” (2007: 73).

    Thermopylae is a narrow pass separating northern Greece (Macedonia and Thessaly) from central Greece. The word “Thermopylae” means “hot gates” (plural) because there are three sections of the pass going east – west between steep mountains to the south and the Gulf of Malis to the north. This pass had sulfurous hot-springs along the way. It was the middle gate, no more than 20 yards wide, that had a dilapidated wall crossing it, that the Spartans defended in order to block the Persian advance to Athens.

    Xerxes, the Great King, the king of Persia, entered Greece from the Hellespont in June of 480 BC, in order to seek glory for himself and revenge from his father Darius’ defeat by the Greeks a decade before at Marathon. Xerxes commanded an army of 150,000 fighting men and a navy of 1,200 warships. In his army were the 10,000 strong Immortals, the crack infantry troops of the Persian army. Herodotus reports that the army, with all its support personal, numbered well over a million people from all over the Persian empire (cf. Esther 1:1, the 127 provinces from India to Ethiopia). Supplying this force with food and drink must have been a phenomenal job. In fact, Herodotus reports that when they came to a river, they drank it dry! (Persian Wars 7.187; LCL 3:505).

    The Greek force that met the Persians at Thermopylae was about 7,100 soldiers from a dozen or so different city-states in Central Greece and the Peloponnese. They were commanded by one of the kings of Sparta, Leonidas. The Greeks were not able to muster a large force immediately because of some religious prohibitions. In progress at the time were two major religious festivals. The first was the Spartan’s Carnea in honor of the Greek god Apollo; and the second was the famous Olympic Games. There was, however, a promise of a large force after the religious festivals were over!

    Xerxes and his army arrived at the western end of the Thermopylae passes and set up camp. He expected his vast numbers and superior forces would intimidate the Greeks and force them to flee in fear. However, the Spartans stood their ground. After four days, Xerxes decided to take matters into his own hands.

    Herodotus records a bit of “gallows-humor” by a Spartans named Dieneces. A Trachinian said to him before the battle that the Medes were so many that when they shoot their multitudes of arrows it would block the sun light. Dieneces reportedly quipped, “Our friend from Trachis brings us right good news, for if the Medes hide the sun we shall fight them in the shade and not in the sunshine” (Persian Wars 7.226; LCL 3: 543). Keep in mind, the battle took place in the month of August, the heat of the summer!

    On the first day of battle, Xerxes sent the Medes against the Spartans. With heavy losses the Medes were repelled so Xerxes sent a second wave to break through the pass, but this failed as well. By the end of the day, the Immortals were thrown against the Spartans, but again with heavy losses. The second day was a repeat of the first, with substantial losses for the Persian army and light losses for the Greeks.

    On the evening after the second day of battle, a greedy Greek traitor named Ephialtes, the son of Eurydemus, from Trachis, in exchange for money, offered to lead the Immortals along a little know path over the mountains so they could out flank the Spartans. This they did in the silence of the night. By dawn, Leonidas had gotten word that the Immortals were behind him, but the Spartans stood their ground to the last man.

    After the battle, Xerxes buried the three hundred Spartans where they fell in the pass so his forces would not be demoralized when they realized they were stopped by so few warriors. The head of Leonidas was impaled on a spear so that he could be seen by all. Xerxes buried 19,000 of his troops that were slain by the Spartans but left 1,000 dead bodies on the battlefield so his forces would think that their losses were not that great.

    For a detailed account of the battle, see Cartledge 2006; for two good summaries of the battle, see the articles: Strauss 2004 and Frye 2006.

    A year later, after the war was over and the Persians defeated and gone home, the Greek erected a monument at the site of the battle with the inscription: “Go tell the Spartans, thou that passest by, that here obedient to their words we lie” (Persian Wars 7.228; LCL 3:545). This inscription is also on a modern monument beneath a statue of King Leonidas that was erected by Greek Americans in 1955.

    The “final problem” of Thermopylae that scholars have debated is: “What was the purpose of Leonidas clinging to his position at Thermopylae when it had apparently become untenable?” (Evans 1964: 231). A number of answers have been suggested. King Leonidas realized that the Greek troops were afraid so he sent them away so they could escape to fight another day. If they and the Spartans all fled at the same time, Leonidas knew that the swift Persian cavalry would catch up with them and slaughter everybody. Leonidas was buying time so their allies could escape (Evans 1964: 237).

    Herodotus recounts: “But to this opinion I the rather incline, that when Leonidas perceived the allies to be faint of heart and not willing to run all risks with him he bade them to their ways, departure being for him not honorable; if he remained, he would leave a name of great renown, and the prosperity of Sparta would not be blotted out. For when the Spartans enquired of the oracle concerning this war at its very first beginning, the Pythian priestess had prophesied to them that either Lacedaemon should be destroyed of the foreigners, or that its king should perish” (Persian Wars 7.220; LCL 3:537). Leonidas understood this prophecy to be about his death. His heroic stand encouraged the other Greek states to take up arms against the Persian invaders and fight for liberty and freedom.

    The Historical Setting of the Book of Esther
    King Xerxes (486-465 BC), the Great King, the king of Persia is King Ahasuerus in the book of Esther (Esther 1:1; for a full discussion of his life, see: Yamauchi 1990:203-206, 226-239).

    In the third year of his reign (1:3), Ahasuerus had a “Pep Rally Party” to entice the various kings in his empire to join him on a military expedition to Greece (Esther 1:3-22). At this lavish banquet, each participant got their own gold vessels (1:7). Each vessel was individually hand crafted and different from any other. This banquet was designed to encourage these kings to “sign up for a Greek vacation” with their armies!

    One of my favorite objects in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City is a gold drinking vessel that was bought on the antiquities market in Iran, allegedly near Susa. It is a beautifully stylized drinking cup with the front part of a lion on it and is contemporary with this banquet (Pittman1987: 140-141; plate 102). Whether it was one of the vessels mentioned in verse 7 can not be determined. But if I was a kinglet in the Persian Empire and I got this unique vessel from the Great King, King Xerxes, I would be impressed and would immediately sign up for this vacation package!

    It was at this banquet that Queen Vashti refused to entertain the king and his guests with a dance. The king, insulted by her rebellion and humiliated in front of his royal subjects, deposed her (1:10-22). The second chapter of the book of Esther begins with “After these things” (2:1). The time frame includes the campaign to Greece, the battle of Thermopylae, the sack of Athens, and the Persian defeat at Salamis.

    The Theme of the Book of Esther
    The theme of the book is this: “God’s preservation of His unbelieving people, and the celebration of that event in the feast of Purim” (Shepperson 1975:26). This theme explains why the Name of God is not mentioned in the book and why prayer is never mentioned. It also explains why Mordecai is still in Susa on the 13th of Nisan when he should have been back in Jerusalem for Passover on the 14th (Esther 3:12; cf. Lev. 23:5; Deut. 16:16). It also addresses why there is a “lack of spiritual awareness in Esther and Mordecai, and the vengeful spirit so apparent at the end of the book” (Shepperson 1975:25).

    Esther and Mordecai were out of the will of God and in unbelief. The expression of faith for an Israelite (Mordecai was from the tribe of Benjamin, Esther 2:5) was for them to “Flee the Chaldeans” (Isa. 48:20,21; 52:7-12; Deut. 28:64-67) and return to Zion when Cyrus made the decree so the Judeans could return to Zion (Ezra 1:1-4). Yet a large number of Israelites and Judeans chose to remain outside the Land of Israel, in Babylon and Susa, rather than return to Zion and the hardships that existed there. When a person is out of God’s will, the last Person they want to talk about is the Lord. Thus the Name of God is not mentioned. Sometimes a person in unbelief or out of the will of God will perform religious rituals, just as the Jewish people did in Susa. They fulfilled their religious ritual by fasting for three days, but they did not pray to Him who should have been the LORD their God (Esther 4:16, 17; cf. Isa. 58:1-7; 1 Kings 8:22-61; 2 Chron. 6:12-42). They were still part of God’s covenant people, but they were in unbelief.

    The Lord used Mordecai and Esther, outside Eretz Israel in unbelief, in order to preserve the Messianic line that had already returned to the Yehud Province in faith during the First Aliyah (return). The Messianic line returned in the person of Zerubbabel (Ezra 2:2; Matt. 1:12, 13 or Luke 3:27). Haman’s decree to annihilate all the Jews affected the Jews living in the land of Judah (Esther 3:12, 13; 4:3; 8:5, 9, 13). This was God’s hand of providence at work.

    Another example of God’s providence using an unbeliever to fulfill His purposes is the decree by Caesar Augustus (Luke 2:1-4). This decree moved Joseph and Mary from Nazareth in Galilee to Bethlehem in Judah in order to fulfill the prophecy of Micah 5:2. “But you, Bethlehem Ephrathah, though you are little among the thousands of Judah, yet out of you shall come forth to Me the One to be ruler in Israel, whose goings forth have been from of old, from everlasting.”

    Origen Compares the Death of Leonidas and the Lord Jesus
    Origen, one of the church fathers from Alexandria in Egypt (AD 185-254), was a prolific writer. He wrote a defense of Christianity against the attacks by the pagan philosopher Celsus, entitled Against Celsus. In it, he compares the death of Leonidas with the death of the Lord Jesus. He wrote: “Extremely foolish also is his [Celsus] remarks, ‘What god, or spirit, or prudent man would not, on forseeing that such events were to befall him, avoid them if he could; whereas he threw himself headlong into those things which he knew beforehand were to happen?’ [Origen discusses the death of Socrates]. … Leonidas also, the Lacedaemonian general, knowing that he was on the point of dying with his followers at Thermopylae, did not make any effort to preserve his life by disgraceful means, but said to his companions, ‘Let us go to breakfast, as we shall sup in Hades.’ And those who are interested in collecting stories of this kind, will find numbers of them. Now, where is the wonder if Jesus, knowing all things that were to happen, did not avoid them, but encountered what He foreknew” (Against Celsus 2.17; Ante-Nicene Fathers 4:438-439).

    Conclusions
    One historian summarized the battle of Thermopylae this way: “Thermopylae was not the decisive battle of the Persian Wars. But it may well be the decisive battle of our imagination. Thermopylae grips us because men chose to stand there and die for the sacred cause of freedom. That alone is reason to remember” (Strauss 2007: 75).

    Bibliography

    Cartledge, Paul
    2006    Thermopylae.  The Battle that Changed the World. Woodstock, NY: Overlook Press.

    Evans, J. A. S.
    1964    The “Final Problem” at Thermopylae.  Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies 5: 231-237,

    Frye, David
    2006    Spartan Stand at Thermopylae. Military History (January / February): 38-44.

    Herodotus
    1998    The Persian Wars. Books 5-7. Vol. 3. Trans. by A. Godley. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University. Loeb Classical Library119.

    Origen
    1994    Origen Against Celsus. Pp. 395-669 in Ante-Nicene Fathers. Vol. 4. Edited by A. Roberts and J. Donaldson. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson.

    Pittman, Holly
    1987    The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Egypt and the Ancient Near East. Edited by J. O’Neill. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art.

    Shepperson, G. E.
    1975    The Role of the Book of Esther in Salvation History.  Unpublished ThM thesis, Dallas Theological Seminary.  Dallas, TX.

    Strauss, Barry
    2004    Go Tell the Spartans. MHQ: The Quarterly Journal of Military History (autumn): 17/1: 16-25.

    2007    Classic Spin. Review of Paul Cartledge, Thermopylae: The Battle That Changed the World. The New Criterion (March): 72-75.

    Yamauchi, Edwin
    1990    Persia and the Bible.  Grand Rapids: Baker.

  • 07Feb

    “How Beautiful Are the Feet” of Talbot Students on Roman Roads in 2011

    Paul and Places Comments Off on “How Beautiful Are the Feet” of Talbot Students on Roman Roads in 2011

    by Gordon Franz

    The 2011 Talbot Bible Lands study tour is now history. Throughout the trip one verse repeatedly went through my mind. In Romans 10:15, the Apostle Paul, quoting from Isaiah 52:7, wrote: “And how shall they preach unless they are sent? As it is written: ‘How beautiful are the feet of those who preach the gospel of peace, who bring glad tidings of good things’” (NKJV).

    The apostles and early church missionaries were “sent” with the “gospel of peace” to proclaim the greatest news in the world: the forgiveness of sins, a home in heaven, and peace with God. Because of His death, burial and resurrection, when a person puts his trust in the Lord Jesus Christ as his Savior, he receives forgiveness for his sins and eternal life (1 Cor. 15:1-4; Rom. 4:5; 5:1; Eph. 2:8-9; Phil. 3:9). The Lord, in His providence, had the Romans build a complex road system for military purposes; ironically, these roads enabled the early church to spread the gospel of peace!

    Our focus on this study tour was the travels and ministry of the Apostle Paul. One of the highlights of the trip was walking the last two miles of the Appian Way into Rome. This was the road Paul and the Roman brethren walked into Rome on at the end of the book of Acts (28:14-16). Before our hike, I reminded the students of the different Roman Roads that we had already walked on this trip, the same roads that the Apostle Paul had walked.

    Appian Way

    Appian Way

    The first road we walked on for about a mile was the Via Taurus, a beautifully preserved road between Tarsus and the Cilician Gates. Paul and Silas walked this road at the beginning of Paul’s second missionary journey (Acts 15:41-16:1) for the purpose of following up on Paul’s first visit to the churches of southern Galatia to see how they were doing (Acts 15:36). Paul probably walked this road at the beginning of his third missionary journey as well (Acts 18:23).

    Via Taurus

    The second road was the Via Sebaste (“Emperor’s Road”), which connects Konya (Iconium) with Psidian Antioch. Here we walked over a still existing Roman bridge. Paul and Barnabas walked the road and crossed the bridge twice during their first missionary journey as they planted churches and later strengthened, encouraged, and appointed elders in every church (Acts 13:51 and 14:21-23).

    Bridge on Via Sebaste

    Bridge on Via Sebaste

    The third Roman Road was to the west of Assos. Paul walked this road alone on his third missionary journey when he went from Alexandria Troas to Assos on what might be called his “Gethsemane Walk.” He had been warned by the Holy Spirit, probably first by prophets in Alexandria Troas, that he would be imprisoned in Jerusalem (Acts 20:22-23). In the solitude of this walk, he would have had time to reflect on the words of the Lord Jesus in Gethsemane, “Nevertheless not My will, but Yours, be done” (Luke 22:42; see Wilson 2010: 360).

    Roman Road near Assos

    Roman Road near Assos

    Roman Road near Assos

    Roman Road near Assos

    The fourth Roman Road was inside the city of Alexandria Troas leading to the harbor. After the vision in which Paul received the “Macedonian Call” (Acts 16:8-11), Paul, Silas, and Timothy walked this road to board the ship bound for Macedonia.

    The fifth road was the part of the Via Egnatia which connected Kavala (Neapolis) and Philippi. Paul walked on this road on at least two occasions. The first time was when he and his party arrived in Macedonia on his second missionary journey (Acts 16:11-12); the second time was at the end of his third missionary journey (Acts 20:6).

    Via Egnatia

    Via Egnatia

    The early church did not have the modern conveniences that we have today for spreading the gospel: television, radio, the Internet, cars, buses, and airlines. When they were “sent,” they walked, rode a donkey or a horse-drawn cart, or sailed on a ship, but they went forth with the gospel.
    The trip is history, but I am looking forward, Lord willing, to 2013.

    Bibliography

    Wilson, Mark
    2010    Biblical Turkey. Istanbul: Zero.

    For pictures of the trip, see:
    http://enery.smugmug.com:80/TalbotBibleLands/Turkey-Greece-and-Rome-2011

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